--- /dev/null
+<TAXON name="Allosauridae" nickname="Gigantic Predators">
+ <WORD key="1" content="predator, big, large, huge, biggest, carnivore"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="carcharodontosaurine allosaurids"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Allosauridae" in="Allosaurus" out="Sinraptor" silhouette="carnosauria">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Padian, Hutchinson" year="1997"/>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Acrocanthosaurus" silhouette="Acrocanthosaurus">
+ <PLACE name="Ethiopia"/>
+ <TIME value="Tithonian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="giant" q="1">
+ <PLACE name="Germany"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Acrocanthosaurus" silhouette="acrocanthosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Allosaurinae" in="Allosaurus" out="Carcharodontosaurus, Cryolophosaurus, Monolophosaurus, Sinraptor">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Allosauridae" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" incertae="1" name="Antrodemus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Wyomingraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Allosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE q="1" name="Carcharodontosaurinae" in="Carcharodontosaurus" out="Allosaurus, Cryolophosaurus, Monolophosaurus, Sinraptor">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Carcharodontosauridae" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Acrocanthosauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Neovenator" q="1"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Niger"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="maxilla, pelvis, femora, tibiae, fibulae"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED comment="giant">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <!--LENGTH value="13"/-->
+ <!--LENGTH value="14"/-->
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Bahariasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Carcharodontosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Giganotosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Neoceratosauria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Mighty Hunters"> These were large, often huge predators. Some
+of the carcharodontosaurines are the largest known carnivores ever to walk
+upon the Earth, even larger than <NOMEN name="Tyrannosaurus rex"/>.</P>
+
+<P>A recent find of a group of differently-aged carcharodontosaurines (the
+genus is yet to be publicly named) in association with each other suggests
+that these enormous carnivores may have hunted in packs. Interestingly,
+the largest known land animals of all time, <LINK content="titanosaurs"/>
+such as <NOMEN name="Argentinosaurus"/>, lived alongside these largest
+land predators of all time. It is possible that packs of South American
+carcharodontosaurines, each measuring up to 45 feet long, might have
+preyed upon herds of 130+-foot-long titanosaurs.</P>
+
+<P header="An Abelisaur Link?"> There are some cranial similarities
+between <LINK content="carcharodontosaurines"/> and <LINK content="abelisaurs"/>, another
+group of Gondwanan (Southern Hemisphere) carnivores. This is probably due to
+convergence. It has been noted that <NOMEN name="Abelisaurus"/>, which is
+known only from a cranium, could conceivably be <LINK
+content="carcharodontosaurine"/> and not a <LINK content="ceratosaur"/>.</P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Alvarezsauria" nickname="Freakish Digging(?) Runners">
+ <WORD key="1" content="bird"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Alvarezsauria" silhouette="alvarezsauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Alvarezsaurus"/>'s taxon
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Rapator" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Alvarezsauridae">
+ <AUTHOR type="non" name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Alvarezsaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Patagonykus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Mononykinae" in="Mononykus, Parvicursor, Shuvuuia">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Parvicursorinae"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME section="late" value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Montana"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Mononykus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithomimus minutus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Parvicursor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shuvuuia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Where Do They Belong?"> This recently discovered group has
+proven difficult to place. The original member, <NOMEN
+name="Alvarezsaurus"/>, was originally given its own family in <LINK
+content="Ceratosauria"/>. When <NOMEN name="Mononykus"/> was first
+discovered, it proved a bafflement. It had <LINK content="bird"/>-like
+features (the skull, a keeled breastbone), unbirdlike features (the tail),
+features like <LINK content="arctometatarsalian coelurosaurs"/> (pinched
+middle metatarsal), and some features completely unique (the single,
+hooked claw on its stubby arms). (NOTE: Some of these fossils have been
+reassigned to the very closely related <NOMEN name="Shuvuuia"/>.)</P>
+
+<P> The discovery of <NOMEN name="Patagonykus"/>, a creature seemingly
+transitional between the more primitive <NOMEN name="Alvarezsaurus"/> and
+the more derived mononykines, showed that all three probably belonged
+to the same group. They are now generally though to be primitive birds,
+although some think they may be related to <LINK content="ornithomimosaurs"/>.
+(One piece of alvarezsaur ankle found by O. C. Marsh in the late 1800's was
+actually assigned to the genus <NOMEN name="Ornithomimus"/>.) </P>
+
+<P header="Their Niche"> Alvarezsaurs were small, terrestrial animals with
+long legs. Their niche is far from certain. Since their stubby forearms
+were built so powerfully, it has been suggested that they used them for
+digging. (In fact, some think that their sterna were keeled as a digging
+adaptation, similar to moles, and that they evolved keeled sterna
+separately from birds, which evolved it for flying.) The overall body plan
+of alvarezsaurs is not that of a burrower, but it has been suggested that
+they might have fed on colonial insects, ripping into nests with their
+single-clawed hands. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Anapsida" nickname='"No Holes" - Turtles & Kin' simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" essay="1" content="turtles"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="archelon, sea turtle, turtle"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Anapsida" in="Chelonia" out="Diapsida" silhouette="anapsida">
+ <MEANING>
+ without apses
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Parareptilia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Mesosauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Millerettidae" q="1" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Procolophonomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Nyctiphruretia" extinct="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Nycteroleter"/>
+ <CLADE name="Nyctiphruretidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Procolophoniformes">
+ <CLADE name="Procolophonidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Lanthanosuchoidea" extinct="1" q="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Acleisterorhinus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Lanthanosuchidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Sclerosauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rhipaeosauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pareiasauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Proganochelyidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Proterochersidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Casichelonia">
+ <CLADE name="Chelycarapookidae" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Kallokibotiidae" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Simemylidae" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Chelonia" crown="1" content="turtles">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Testudinata"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Testudines"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pleurodira">
+ <MEANING>
+ side necks
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Chelyidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eusarkiidae" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Platychelidae" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Araripemydidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pelomedusidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Podocnmemoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Bothremydidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Podocnemidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cryptodira">
+ <MEANING>
+ hidden necks
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Baenidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Glyptopsidae" extinct="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pleurosternidae" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Meiolaniidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Neeurankylidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eucryptodira">
+ <MEANING>
+ true cryptodirans
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Plesiochelyidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Xinjiangchelys" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Sinemydidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Chelydridae" content="snapping turtles"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Chelonioidea" content="sea turtles">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cheloniidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Toxochelyidae" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dermochelyidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Protostegidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Thalassemyidae" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Chelomacryptodira">
+ <CLADE name="Testudinoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Emydidae" content="box & water turtles"/>
+ <CLADE name="Testudinidae" content="terrapins"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Trionychoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Carettochelyidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dermatemydidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Kinosternidae" content="mud & musk turtles"/>
+ <CLADE name="Trionychidae" content="softshell turtles"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Anapsida is a clade of of <LINK content="reptiles"/> with no fenestrae
+(openings) in the back of their skulls. It includes large herbivores like
+pareiasaurs as well as modern-day turtles. During the <LINK
+content="Mesozoic Era"/>, "The Age of Reptiles", turtles grew to great
+sizes. Some, like <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Archelon"/>, were the size of a
+car! </P>
+
+<P>In traditional usage, Anapsida included all <LINK content="amniotes"/>
+without antorbital fenestrae. It has now been restricted to those sharing
+more recent ancestry with chelonians (turtles) than with other extant
+amniote groups. Membership is mostly the same, but excludes basalmost
+<LINK content="sauropsids"/> (e.g. <LINK content="mesosaurids"/>) and
+basal romeriids (e.g. <LINK content="captorhinids"/>).
+</P>
+
+<P> Within Reptilia, anapsids are probably the most distant relatives of
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Animalia" nickname="Animals" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="fauna, invertebrate, invertebrates"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="mollusk, ammonoid, ammonoids, horseshoe crab, rudist clams"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Cancelloidokytodermogammarus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Animalia" silhouette="animalia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Linnaeus"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ animals
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Metazoa"/>
+ <CLADE name="Porifera" content="sponges"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Phagocytellozoa"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Mesozoa" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Monoblastozoa" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eumetazoa">
+ <CLADE name="Cnidaria" content="hydrae, corals, jellyfish"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ctenophora" content="comb jellies"/>
+ <CLADE name="Bilateralia" content="bilaterally symmetrical animals">
+ <CLADE name="Acoelomata">
+ <CLADE name="Xenoturbellida"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Gnathostomulida"/>
+ <CLADE name="Platyhelminthes" content="flatworms"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Coelomata" content="animals with a true body cavity">
+ <CLADE name="Protostomia">
+ <CLADE name="Bryozoa" content='"moss creatures"' q="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ectoprocta"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cycliophora" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Entoprocta" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pseudocoelomata" q="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Aschelminthes"/>
+ <CLADE q="1">
+ <CLADE name="Chaetognatha"/>
+ <CLADE name="Protoconodonta" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Nematoda">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Nemata"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Nematomorpha"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Gastrotricha"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Acanthocephala"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rotifera" content="rotifers"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Arthropodomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Arthropoda" content="insects, myriapods, arachnids, crustaceans, trilobites, tardigrades?, onychophorans?, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Sprigginida" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Amiskwiida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Nemertea">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Nemertinea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Lobatocerebrida"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Myzostomida" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Banffida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Echiura">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Echiuroidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Annelida" content="earthworms, leeches, bristleworms, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Vestimentifera"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pogonophora" content="pogonophores"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE q="1">
+ <CLADE name="Phoronida"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Tommotiida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Brachiopoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Palaeoscolecida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Kinorhyncha"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Loricifera"/>
+ <CLADE name="Priapulida">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Priapuloidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Tullimonsterida" content='"The Tully Monster"' extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Hyolitha" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sipuncula">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sipunculoidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Chancelloriida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sachitida" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Mollusca" content="chitons, snails, bivalves, cephalopods, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Siphogonuchitida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Halkieriida" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Deuterostomia">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cambroclaves" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Echinodermata" content="crinoids, starfish, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, brittle stars"/>
+ <CLADE name="Heterostelea" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dinomischida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Eldoniida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rotadisciida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Paropsonemida" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Brachiopoda"/>
+ <CLADE name="Graptolitha" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Hemichordata" content="acorn worms"/>
+ <CLADE name="Chordata" content="animals with a notochord">
+ <CLADE name="Calcichordata" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Urochordata" content="sea squirts">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Tunicata"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cephalochordata" content="lancelets, Pikaia, etc.">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Acraniata"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Craniata" content="chordates with heads">
+ <CLADE name="Myxini" content="hagfish"/>
+ <CLINK name="Vertebrata"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Among Earth's enormously vast array of animals, <LINK
+content="dinosaurs"/> belong to the <LINK content="vertebrate"/> clade,
+which is characterized by the possession of a backbone. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ankylosauria" nickname="Dinosaurian Tanks">
+ <WORD key="1" content="nodosaurs, armored, scutes, spikes, armoured"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosauria" in="Ankylosaurus" out="Stegosaurus" silhouette="ankylosauria">
+ <MEANING><NOMEN name="Ankylosaurus"/>' taxon</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Carpenter" year="1997"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth, ribs"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Cryptosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Heishansaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Peishansaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Priconodon" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Priodontognathus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rhadinosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stegosaurides" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tianzhenosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Tyreophorus" q="1"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Texas"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="India"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="IM" id="K20/350" content="skull roof portion"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Minmi"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosauroidea" in="Ankylosaurus, Nodosaurus">
+ <CLADE name="Stegopeltini" incertae="1">
+ <UNNAMED comment="San Diego"></UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Glyptodontopelta"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stegopelta"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Nodosauridae" in="Nodosaurus" out="Ankylosaurus" silhouette="nodosauridae">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="early" value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="giant">
+ <TIME value="EK" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Montana"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Antarctica"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Dracopelta" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Liaoningosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Palaeoscincus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pawpawsaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sarcolestes" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Struthiosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Anoplosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nodosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Edmontoniinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Niobrarasaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Texasetes" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Animantarx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Edmontonia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Panoplosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Panoplosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sauropelta"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Silvisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Ankylosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Nodosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Hylaeosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pawpawsaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sauropelta"/>
+ <CLADE name="Panoplosaurinae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Edmontoniinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Edmontonia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Panoplosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Solid Protection"> Ankylosaurs include the most heavily armored
+dinosaurs of all, the "tanks" of the <LINK content="Mesozoic"/>. The
+entire back was covered with bony plates, studs, and spikes. So was the
+head, right down to the eyelids! (Bony eyelids have been found in <NOMEN
+name="Pawpawsaurus"/> and <NOMEN name="Euoplocephalus"/>, which are so
+distantly related within Ankylosauroidea as to suggest that all
+ankylosauroids had bony eyelids, at least primitively.) </P>
+
+<P> Some nodosaurids bore very large spikes along their sides, the largest
+often sprouting from the shoulders. These may have been used as defense,
+weapons in rivalry, or both. </P>
+
+<P header="Geographic Distribution"> These animals are known from all
+continents except South America and Africa. They were most prevalent in
+Laurasia (the northern supercontinent). </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ankylosauridae" nickname="Club-Tails" silhouette="ankylosaurinae-shamosaurinae">
+ <WORD key="1" content="armored, armoured, tail, club, weapon, spike"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosauridae" in="Ankylosaurus" out="Nodosaurus" silhouette="ankylosauria">
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME section="early" value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="France"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Aletopelta" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tianchisaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Polacanthinae" in="Polacanthus" out="Ankylosaurus, Shamosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Acanthopholis" q="1" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gargoyleosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Hylaeosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mymoorapelta"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Polacanthini">
+ <CGENUS name="Gastonia"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Hoplitosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Polacanthus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE silhouette="ankylosaurinae-shamosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Cedarpelta"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Shamosaurinae" in="Shamosaurus" out="Ankylosaurus, Polacanthus">
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Gobisaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shamosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosaurinae" in="Ankylosaurus" out="Polacanthus, Shamosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Sauroplites" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tsagantegia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Ankylosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Syrmosaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Amtosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Maleevus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shanxia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Talarurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Nodocephalosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saichania"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tarchia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Euoplocephalus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pinacosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Gargoyleosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Minmi"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shamosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gastonia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pinacosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosaurinae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="A Crippling Weapon"> A large club at the end of the tail
+distinguishes ankylosaurines and shamosaurines from the more primitive
+<LINK content="ankylosaurs"/> They probably used this club to give
+crippling blows to potential predators. A similar structure existed in the
+<LINK content="sauropod"/> <NOMEN name="Shunosaurus"/>, as well as the
+glyptodonts, an extinct group of giant South American <LINK
+content="mammals"/> related to armadillos. Ankylosaurines also had
+shorter, more triangular skulls than other ankylosaurs and no spikes along
+their sides. </P>
+
+<P header="The Varieties"> Polacanthines were once classified as
+nodosaurids, but are now recognized as a distinct clade closer to the
+Ankylosaurinae. It was recently thought that they had small tail clubs,
+but this has been refuted. </P>
+
+<P> Shamosaurines had narrow snouts, especially compared to the very wide
+snouts of ankylosaurines. This may reflect different niches.</P>
+
+<P> Many ankylosaurines had complex, looping nasal passages, possibly to
+enhance their sense of smell. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Archosauromorpha" nickname='"Ruling Reptiles"' simple="1">
+ <INCLUDED content="Desmatosuchus, Euparkeria, Hsisosuchus, Lewisuchus, Postosuchus, Proterosuchus, Rutiodon, Saltopus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Archosauromorpha" in="Archosauria" out="Lepidosauria" silhouette="archosauromorpha">
+ <MEANING>archosaur forms</MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Doswellia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elastichosuchus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Trilophosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rhynchosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Prolacertiformes">
+ <MEANING>
+ before lizard forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Protorosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protorosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Kadimakara" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Malutinisuchus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Prolacertoides" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Trachelosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Prolacerta"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Jesairosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Malerisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Macrocnemus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Megalancosauridae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Drepanosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Boreopricea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cosesaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tanystropheidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Archosauriformes" in="Archosauria, Proterosuchus">
+ <MEANING>archosaur forms</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Gauthier" year="1984"/>
+ <CLADE name="Proterosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Erythrosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Euparkeria" exinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Archosauria" in="Neornithes, Crocodylia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Cope" year="1869"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1984"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Avesuchia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Benton" year="1999"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <MEANING>
+ ruling lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Lukousaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saltoposuchus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pseudosuchia" in="Crocodylia" out="Neornithes">
+ <AUTHOR name="Zittel" year="1890"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Crocodylotarsi"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ false crocodiles
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Proterochampsidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Erpetosuchidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ctenosauriscidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Crurotarsi" in="Ornithosuchus, Crocodylia">
+ <MEANING>
+ cross ankles
+ </MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1991"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Parasuchia" content="phytosaurids">
+ <AUTHOR name="Huxley" year="1859"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ beside crocodiles
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Phytosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Prestosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Lewisuchus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Turfanosuchus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Suchia" in="Crocodylia, Stagonolepis">
+ <MEANING>
+ crocodiles
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pseudosuchia" sensu="Benton" year="1988"/>
+ <CLADE name="Aetosauria" content="stagonolepidids">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Aëtosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rauisuchia" in="Crocodylia, Rauisuchus">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Rauisuchus"/>' taxon
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Rauisuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gracilisuchus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Postosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Paracrocodylomorpha" in="Crocodylia, Poposaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ beside Crocodylomorpha
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Poposauridae"/>
+ <CLINK name="Crocodylomorpha"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithosuchia" in="Neornithes" out="Crocodylia" silhouette="ornithosuchia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Avemetatarsalia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Benton" year="1999"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <CGENUS name="Saltopus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <MEANING>bird crocodiles</MEANING>
+ <CLINK name="Ornithodira"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Archosauromorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Rhynchosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithodira">
+ <CLADE name="Prolacertiformes">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pterosauromorpha"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Boreopricea"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Jesairosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Prolacerta"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protorosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Megalancosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Macrocnemus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Tanystropheidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Langobardisaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cosesaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sharovipteryx"/>
+ <CLINK name="Pterosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauromorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Archosauriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Proterosuchidae">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Erythrosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Proterochampsidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Euparkeria"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Parasuchia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Archosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Pseudosuchia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithosuchia">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Scleromochlus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Lagerpeton"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Marasuchus"/>
+ <CLINK name="Dinosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Archosauromorpha includes all <LINK content="sauropsids"/> with
+four-chambered hearts, an evolutionary innovation that permitted them
+higher activity levels and terrestrial dominance throughout the <LINK
+content="Mesozoic Era"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Classification"> The forms shown here were once all included in
+Archosauria in the "grab-bag" taxon "Thecodontia" -- any archosaur that
+wasn't a <LINK content="crocodylian"/>, a <LINK content="pterosaur"/>, or
+a <LINK content="dinosaur"/>. This form of classification was abandoned
+once knowledge about these animals increased. </P>
+
+<P> The non-archosaur archosauromorphs, or "protoarchosaurs", show fairly
+wide diversity, from small hunters with insanely long necks like <NOMEN
+name="Tanystropheus" nolink="1"/> to large, beaked herbivores like the
+rhynchosaurs to the megalancosaurids, bizarre climbers with prehensile
+tails. </P>
+
+<P> The two major groups of Archosauria proper are rather poorly named.
+Pseudosuchia means "false crocodiles", yet it includes true ones.
+Ornithosuchia was named after the creature <NOMEN name="Ornithosuchus"
+nolink="1"/>, and defined as all animals sharing more recent ancestry with
+birds than with crocodiles. Unfortunately, subsequent analyses have shown
+that <NOMEN name="Ornithosuchus" nolink="1"/> was not an ornithosuchian,
+but a pseudosuchian! </P>
+
+<P header="The Struggle for Supremacy"> Pseudosuchians became the dominant
+terrestrial animals after the demise of the two previous <LINK
+content="synapsid"/> "dynasties" -- the "<LINK content="pelycosaurs"/>"
+and the non-<LINK content="mammalian"/> <LINK content="therapsids"/>. They
+diversified into many niches: armored herbivores (aetosaurs), big
+carnivores (rauisuchians), tiny sprinters (<NOMEN name="Lewisuchus"
+nolink="1"/>), and water-dwellers (parasuchians and <LINK
+content="crocodylomorphs"/>). There is evidence that many pseudosuchians
+may have been agile, active creatures, unlike the only modern
+pseudosuchians (<LINK content="crocodylians"/>) which have reverted to a
+sluggish lifestyle. </P>
+
+<P> But by the end of the <LINK content="Triassic"/> they had been
+outcompeted by their fellow archosaurs, the ornithosuchian <LINK
+content="ornithodirans"/>. Dinosaurs and pterosaurs would continue to
+dominate terrestrial and aerial niches until the end of the <LINK
+content="Mesozoic"/>, far longer than any previous or subsequent
+terrestrial "dynasty" (and they <U>still</U> dominate aerial niches!). Of
+all the pseudosuchians, only the aquatic crocodylomorphs survived beyond
+the <LINK content="Triassic"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Avialae" nickname="Birds & Near-Birds" silhouette="aves">
+ <WORD key="1" content="origin, feather, link"/>
+ <WORD key="1" essay="1" content="bird, birds, archaeopterygian"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Avialae" in="Neornithes" out="Deinonychus" silhouette="paraves">
+ <AUTHOR name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Padian" year="1997"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" cf="Archaeopteryx">
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Romania"/>
+ <REMAINS content="partial humerus"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Wyleyia" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Aves" in="Archaeopteryx, Neornithes" silhouette="aves">
+ <AUTHOR name="Linnaeus"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Chiappe"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Avialae" sensu="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ birds
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED comment='"Archaeoraptor"' incertae="1">
+ <TIME value="Barremian" section="middle"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ <REMAINS content="forepart of skeleton with integument impressions"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE name="Archaeopterygiformes">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Archaeornithes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeopteryx"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE in="Neornithes" out="Archaeopteryx">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithurae" sensu="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Hulsanpes" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Yandangornis" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pygostylia" in="Confuciusornis, Neornithes" silhouette="pygostylia">
+ <MEANING>
+ pygostyles <LOW>("Parson's noses")</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS museum="PO" id="4821" content="proximal coracoid"/>
+ <PLACE name="Uzbekistan"/>
+ <TIME value="Coniacian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Catenoleimus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Confuciusornithidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Changchengornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Confuciusornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Proornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Abavornis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Explorornis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Holbotia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Incolornis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Jibeinia"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Longipteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Noguerornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protopteryx" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Zhyraornithidae" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Zhyraornis">
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithothoraces" in="Iberomesornis, Neornithes">
+ <MEANING><LOW>modern</LOW> bird chests</MEANING>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Platanavis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Vorona" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Enantiornithes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Euornithes" in="Neornithes" out="Sinornis">
+ <MEANING>true birds</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1998"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithurae" sensu="Feduccia"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Kuszholia" silhouette="pygostylia-flightless" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Liaoningornis"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Yanornis"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Yixianornis"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gansuiformes" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Gansus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ambiortiformes" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Otogornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ambiortus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Patagopterygiformes" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Patagopteryx" silhouette="pygostylia-flightless"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Gargantuavis" silhouette="pygostylia-flightless"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Chaoyangiiformes" incertae="1">
+ <CLADE name="Chaoyangiidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Chaoyangia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Songlingornithidae" q="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Songlingornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Ornithurae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Avialae">
+ <CLADE name="Aves">
+ <CLADE name="Metornithes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Archaeornithes">
+ <MEANING>
+ ancient birds
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Archaeopterygiformes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Unenlagia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Archaeopterygidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeopteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rahonavis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Avialae">
+ <CLADE name="Metornithes">
+ <CLADE name="Alvarezsauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Aves">
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeopteryx"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pygostylia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Avialae">
+ <CLINK name="Troodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Aves"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Aves">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pygostylia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Archaeornithes">
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeopteryx"/>
+ <CLADE name="Confuciusornithidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithothoraces" sensu="Chatterjee"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protoavis"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithothoraces">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pygostylia" sensu="Chatterjee"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Aves">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithothoraces"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pygostylia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithurae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Saururae" in="Archaeopteryx" out="Neornithes">
+ <MEANING>
+ lizard tails
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sauriurae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeopteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Caudipteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protarchaeopteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Yandangornis"/>
+ <CLADE name="Enantiornithes"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Origins">Birds evolved from small, possibly "sickle-clawed"
+<LINK content="coelurosaurs"/> probably sometime during the <LINK
+content="Jurassic"/> (some have suggested the <LINK content="Triassic"/>),
+as did their close relatives the <LINK content="deinonychosaurs"/>. The
+earliest known definite bird is the European <NOMEN
+name="Archaeopteryx"/>, a small flying predator from the Late Jurassic.
+The North American <NOMEN name="Protoavis"/> has been interpreted as a
+Late Triassic bird that is more "advanced" than <NOMEN
+name="Archaeopteryx"/>, but few <LINK content="dinosaur"/>/bird
+researchers agree with this at present.</P>
+
+<P header="Advanced Forms">Pygostylian birds are characterized by a
+pygostyle, a fusion of the vertebrae at the end of the tail. This trait
+seems to have evolved convergently in at least one <LINK
+content="oviraptorosaur"/> (<NOMEN name="Nomingia"/>) and at least one
+<LINK content="megalancosaurid"/> (<NOMEN name="Drepanosaurus"
+nolink="1"/>).</P>
+
+<P>Ornithothoracean birds, a large subset of pygostylians that includes
+<LINK content="modern birds"/>, have a "modern-style" thorax and an alula,
+or "bastard wing" -- a group of feathers associated with the first finger
+that aids maneuverability in flight.</P>
+
+<P header="From the Trees or From the Ground?">Unlike the other two groups of
+flying <LINK content="vertebrates"/>, <LINK content="pterosaurs"/> and
+<LINK content="bats"/>, the hindlimbs of birds are not in any way coupled with
+the wings, and remain free for running. Due to this and other pieces of
+evidence, some dinosaur researchers argue that birds did not evolve from a
+tree-dwelling ancestor, as the other groups are thought to have. Recent
+studies suggest that <NOMEN name="Archaeopteryx"/> could run fast enough to
+take off from the ground, bolstering this hypothesis, commonly known as the
+"Ground Up" hypothesis. </P>
+
+<P>But many disagree with this idea, arguing that flight in birds evolved as
+it seems to have in bats and pterosaurs -- from the "Trees Down".
+They hold that bird ancestors were scansorial coelurosaurs which leaped from
+tree to tree, then evolved into gliders, and from there to fliers. The
+facts that <NOMEN name="Archaeopteryx"/> has claws sharply recurved for
+climbing and that its first toe is reversed for perching support this
+idea.</P>
+
+<P>As of now, the fossil evidence does not clearly favor either the
+"Trees Down" or "Ground Up" hypotheses of the evolution
+of flight in birds. </P>
+
+<P header="An Opposing View">The hypothesis that birds descended from
+dinosaurs has been around for a long time. Thomas Huxley (a.k.a. "Darwin's
+bulldog") proposed such a relationship based on similarities between
+<NOMEN name="Archaeopteryx"/> and dinosaurs. This view was dismissed by
+Gerhard Heilmann, who noted that dinosaurs lack clavicles, which are not
+only present in birds but fused to form the furcula, or "wishbone".
+Heilmann's suggestion that birds and dinosaurs descended separately from
+"thecodont" (basal <LINK content="archosaurian"/>) stock held fast for
+most of the 1900's.</P>
+
+<P>Heilmann's view was finally dispelled by the discovery that some <LINK
+content="theropod"/> dinosaur fossils (such as those of <NOMEN
+name="Segisaurus"/>) <U>do</U> in fact have clavicles. In <LINK
+content="tetanuran"/> forms (such as <NOMEN name="Velociraptor"/>, <LINK
+content="oviraptorids"/>, <LINK content="allosaurids"/>), they are even
+fused to form furculae. These elements had often been mistaken for rib
+fragments. Additionally, clavicles are reduced or missing in some modern
+birds, and were likely so for many other theropods.</P>
+
+<P>A more recent objection to the dinosaur-bird link is the claim that
+embryological evidence shows the digits in the hands of modern birds to be
+II-III-IV, not I-II-III as in coelurosaurs and other <LINK
+content="tetanurans"/>. In fact, the story may be quite a bit more
+complicated. It is not certain that the element that has been interpreted
+as a vestigial digit I is in fact digit I. Furthermore, other studies show
+that frame shift can cause some birds to have digits aligned differently
+than in other birds, even with the same species.</P>
+
+<P>Opponents of the dinosaurian theory of bird origins have yet to
+propose an explicit alternate theory, generally stating that birds
+evolved from basal <LINK content="archosauromorphs"/> of some kind. They
+also have yet to explain why such an enormous degree of convergence
+would appear between birds and terrestrial <LINK content="theropods"/>
+when they represent separate niches.</P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Carnosauria" nickname='"Meat Reptiles" - Mighty Hunters' silhouette="monolophosaurus">
+ <WORD key="1" content="predator, hunter"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" key="1" content="allosaurs"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Carnosauria" in="Allosaurus" out="Neornithes" silhouette="carnosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="von Huene" year="1914"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" name="Hutchinson, Padian" year="1997"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ flesh<LOW>-eating</LOW> lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" q="1">
+ <TIME value="J" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="France"/>
+ <REMAINS content="braincase"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Allosauria"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Allosauroidea" sensu="Sereno" year="1998"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Xuanhanosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cryolophosaurus" silhouette="cryolophosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Fukuiraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Monolophosaurus" silhouette="monolophosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Allosauroidea" in="Allosaurus, Sinraptor">
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Lourinhanosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sinraptoridae" in="Sinraptor" out="Allosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Gasosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Szechuanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Yangchuanosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Allosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="History"> The taxon Carnosauria once included all large <LINK
+content="theropods"/>, from large <LINK content="ceratosaurs"/> to <LINK
+content="megalosaurs"/> to <LINK content="tyrannosaurs"/>. More recent
+research shows that most of these are more closely allied to other groups.
+Today, only the allosaurids and their relatives are considered true
+carnosaurs (The precise definition: all animals sharing a more recent
+common ancestor with <NOMEN name="Allosaurus"/> than with <LINK
+content="modern birds"/>). </P>
+
+<P header="Ornate Killers"> Many carnosaurs bore crests atop their heads.
+The primitive forms <NOMEN name="Monolophosaurus"/> and <NOMEN
+name="Cryolophosaurus"/> (one of the few dinosaurs from Antarctica) had
+ridges along the tops of their snouts. In <NOMEN name="Cryolophosaurus"/>
+this culminated in a large, vertical crest. <NOMEN name="Allosaurus"/> had
+paired crests above the eyes, especially prominent in
+<NOMEN name="A. fragilis"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="An Early End"> Carnosaurs did not survive to the end of the
+<LINK content="Mesozoic"/>. They may have been out-competed by <LINK
+content="abelisaurids"/> and <LINK content="tyrannosaurids"/>. But in
+their heyday they included the largest known land predators of all time.
+</P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Centrosaurinae" nickname="Dinosaurian Rhinoceri">
+ <WORD key="1" content="horned, frilled, spike, nose, snout"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Centrosaurinae" in="Centrosaurus" out="Ceratops" silhouette="centrosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Avaceratops" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Centrosaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Centrosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Styracosaurus" silhouette="styracosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pachyrhinosaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Brachyceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Monoclonius"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Einiosaurus" silhouette="einiosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="achelousaurus-pachyrhinosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Achelousaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pachyrhinosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Coronosauria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Physical Characteristics"> One of the two main lineages of ceratopsids (a.k.a. horned
+dinosaurs"), most centrosaurines bore large horns on their noses. Unlike
+most members of their sister group, the <LINK content="ceratopsines"/>,
+their neck frills tended to be relatively short, although often
+accentuated by two large spikes at the top, or spikes all along the rim of
+the frill as in <NOMEN name="Styracosaurus"/>. Their snouts were also
+short. </P>
+
+<P> The advanced pachyrhinosaurins had a large, blunt bony growth in place
+of the nasal horn. This may have formed the core of a horny pad in life,
+or possibly the core of a gigantic nasal horn. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ceratopsia" nickname="Frilled Dinosaurs">
+ <WORD key="1" content="frilled, horned, protoceratopsian"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="the horned & frilled dinosaurs"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsia" in="Ceratops" out="Pachycephalosaurus" silhouette="ceratopsia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Marsh" year="1890"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopia"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Ceratops"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="early" value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="England"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Echizensaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Trachodon" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Psittacosauria" in="Psittacosaurus" out="Ceratops">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Psittacosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ <TIME section="middle" value="Barremian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Psittacosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Neoceratopsia" in="Ceratops" out="Psittacosaurus" silhouette="neoceratopsia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ new ceratopsians
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" cf="Leptoceratops">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="NMV" id="P186385" content="ulna"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="middle" value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Alberta"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="early" value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME section="middle" value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Maryland"/>
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Leptoceratops">
+ <TIME section="middle-late" value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Alberta"/>
+ <REMAINS content="dentaries"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Asiaceratops" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Magulodon" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Microceratops" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Graciliceratops" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Leptoceratops" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Udanoceratops" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chaoyangsaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeoceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kulceratops" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Coronosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> This group of herbivores contains the frilled <LINK
+content="dinosaurs"/>, including the horned dinosaurs. Like many other
+groups of <LINK content="Late Cretaceous"/> dinosaurs, they inhabited only Asia and North
+America. </P>
+
+<P header="Evolution"> <NOMEN name="Psittacosaurus"/> is the most primitive known
+ceratopsian. The back of its skull hints at the giant neck frill of later
+ceratopsians. Its powerful parrot-like beak, for which the genus was named
+("parrot lizard"), features an extra bone. This bone, the rostral bone, is
+unique to ceratopsians. </P>
+
+<P> The creatures on this page were all bipedal. From such as these came
+the quadrupedal <LINK content="coronosaurs"/>. Coronosaurs were generally
+larger, although at least one bipedal ceratopsian (<NOMEN
+name="Udanoceratops"/>) grew to a fairly large size. Bipedal ceratopsians
+persisted until the end of the <LINK content="Mesozoic"/>, co-existing with
+the more advanced <LINK content="ceratopsoids"/>. </P>
+
+<P> (See <LINK content="Ceratopsinae"/> for a discussion on the "s" in
+Ceratopsia). </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ceratopsinae" nickname="Three-Horns">
+ <WORD key="1" content="horned, frilled"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsinae" in="Ceratops" out="Centrosaurus" silhouette="ceratopsinae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopinae"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Chasmosaurinae"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Agathauminae" q="1"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Polyonax" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ugrosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Chasmosaurini">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopsini" q="1"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopini" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ceratops" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chasmosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pentaceratops"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Anchiceratops"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Arrhinoceratops"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Torosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="diceratops-triceratops">
+ <CGENUS name="Diceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Triceratops"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Coronosauria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Physical Characteristics"> Unlike their sister group, the <LINK content="centrosaurines"/>,
+ceratopsines (a.k.a. chasmosaurines), placed more emphasis on brow horns
+than the nasal horn, to the point that some barely had a nasal horn at
+all, hence names like <NOMEN name="Arrhinoceratops"/> ("without nose-horn
+face") and <NOMEN name="Diceratops"/> ("two-horned face"). </P>
+
+<P> Their neck frills were longer than those of centrosaurines, except in
+the lineage leading to <NOMEN name="Triceratops"/>, wherein they became
+short and completely solid, with no parietal fenestrae. </P>
+
+<P header="A Name Problem"> There has been some disagreement over the name of this group and all
+other groups named after the genus <NOMEN name="Ceratops"/>. For years
+they have been known as Ceratopsidae, Ceratopsia, etc. Some have pointed
+out that this is not correct Greek, and that the "s" should be dropped,
+hence Ceratopidae, Ceratopia. But the names with "s" have become deeply
+entrenched in <LINK content="dinosaur"/> terminology, and are used on this
+site. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Coelophysoidea" nickname="Early Kink-Snouted Predators" silhouette="coelophysoidea-large">
+ <WORD key="1" content="spitter, frill, Gojira, Godzilla"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Coelophysoidea" in="Coelophysis" out="Ceratosaurus" silhouette="neotheropoda">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Podokesauroidea"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dolichosuchus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gojirasaurus" incertae="1" silhouette="coelophysoidea-large"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Halticosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pterospondylus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shuvosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dilophosaurus" silhouette="coelophysoidea-large"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Liliensternus" silhouette="coelophysoidea-large"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED comment='"Shake-N-Bake"'>
+ <TIME value="Hettangian"/>
+ <TIME value="Pliensbachian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Arizona"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE name="Coelophysidae" in="Coelophysis, Procompsognathus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Podokesauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Procompsognathinae" in="Procompsognathus" out="Coelophysis">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Segisaurinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Procompsognathus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Segisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Coelophysinae" in="Coelophysis" out="Procompsognathus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Podokesaurinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Camposaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Coelophysis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eucoelophysis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Podokesaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Syntarsus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1"><REFER page="Theropoda"/></CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Strange Jaws"> <ILLO name="coelophysid_skull"/> Coelophysoids were a group of early
+<LINK content="neotheropods"/>. Most were characterized by a kink in the
+front of the upper snout, similar to the snout kink of the <LINK
+content="spinosaurids"/>. (In fact, some have considered spinosaurids to
+be late-surviving coelophysoids.) It was once thought that this kink,
+which allowed some mobility for the premaxilla, would have weakened the
+skull. But it is now known to have been internally strengthened, and ideas
+that coelophysoids could not have been true predators have been dismissed.
+</P>
+
+<P header="Sizes"> <NOMEN name="Coelophysis"/> and the similar <NOMEN name="Syntarsus"/>
+and <NOMEN name="Eucoelophysis"/> were medium-small hunters, larger than
+the tiny procompsognathines. <NOMEN name="Liliensternus"/>, <NOMEN
+name="Dilophosaurus"/>, and <NOMEN name="Gojirasaurus"/> were the largest
+coelophysoids, about 15 to 20 feet long. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Coelurosauria" nickname="Very Advanced Theropods" silhouette="coelurosauria-small">
+ <WORD key="1" content="coelurosaurian, maniraptoran, bird, avian, origin, feather, feathers, feathered, proto, proto-feather, integument, skin, impressions"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="arctometatarsalian, arctometatarsalians, arctometatarsalian coelurosaurs, ornitholestid, ornitholestids"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Coelurosauria" in="Neornithes" out="Allosaurus" silhouette="coelurosauria-large">
+ <AUTHOR name="von Huene" year="1914"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ hollow-tailed lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <PLACE name="District of Columbia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="caudal vertebra (lost)"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1" indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="pedal phalanx"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="K"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <REMAINS age="juvenileQ" content="vertebrae, ribs, caudal series, radius, ulna, manus, hindlimbs, pedes"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="basal">
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <PLACE name="S. Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <REMAINS value="tarsus"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Maryland"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small, big-toothed" silhouette="coelurosauria-small">
+ <TIME value="Kimmeridgian" section="latest"/>
+ <TIME value="Tithonian" section="earliest"/>
+ <PLACE name="Germany"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Aniksosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Beelemodon"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chilantaisaurus maortuensis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithomimus affinis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ozraptor" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Piveteausaurus" incertae="1" silhouette="ornitholestidae"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Bagaraatan"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Deltadromeus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptoriformes" in="Neornithes, Ornithomimus">
+ <MEANING>maniraptor forms</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Holtz" year="1996"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Deinonychosauria" sensu="Sereno" q="1"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Manuraptoriformes"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Maniraptora" sensu="Holtz" year="1994"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Bullatosauria" q="1"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Tyrannoraptora" q="1">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="deinonychosaur or troodontid" silhouette="deinonychosauria">
+ <TIME value="Bathonian"/>
+ <PLACE name="England"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1" comment="dryptosaurid?">
+ <REMAINS content="forelimb elements"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="deinonychosaurian?">
+ <REMAINS content="teeth, limb elements"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="deinonychosaurian?">
+ <REMAINS content="many elements, including two cervical vertebrae and a manual ungual"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeornithoides" incertae="1" silhouette="maniraptora"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Aristosuchus sp." incertae="1" silhouette="coelurosauria-small" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Arkansaurus" q="1" silhouette="ornithomimosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Bradycneme" incertae="1" silhouette="maniraptora"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Calamosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Diplotomodon" q="1" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dryptosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elopteryx" incertae="1" silhouette="maniraptora"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ginnareemimus" incertae="1" silhouette="ornithomimosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Harpymimus" incertae="1" silhouette="ornithomimosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Heptasteornis" incertae="1" silhouette="maniraptora"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Labocania" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nqwebasaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nedcolbertia" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornitholestes" silhouette="ornitholestidae" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithomimus sp." incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Phaedrolosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Proceratosaurus" q="1" silhouette="ornitholestidae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ricardoestesia" incertae="1" silhouette="maniraptora"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Santanaraptor" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Scipionyx" silhouette="coelurosauria-small" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Euronychodon" q="1" silhouette="deinonychosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Paronychodon" q="1" silhouette="deinonychosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Avimimidae" incertae="1" silhouette="avimimidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Avimimus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kakuru" q="1"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME section="middle-late" value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Alberta"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Coeluridae" silhouette="coelurosauria-small" q="1">
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="ZPAL" id="MgD-I/99"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Coelurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Compsognathidae" silhouette="coelurosauria-small" q="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sinosauropterygidae"/>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <!--Romualdo Member, Santana Formation-->
+ <!--Martill, Frey, Sues & Cruickshank, 2000-->
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="SMNK" id="2349 PAL" content="partial ilium, pubis, ischium, femora, distal ends of fibula and tibia, sacral vertebrae, ?intestinal track, ?postpubic air sac"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Aristosuchus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Compsognathus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinosauropteryx"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Troodontidae" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Tyrannosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Arctometatarsalia" in="Ornithomimus" out="Neornithes">
+ <MEANING>pinched metatarsals</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Holtz" year="1994"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" year="1996"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithomimosauria" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CLINK name="Ornithomimosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora" in="Neornithes" out="Ornithomimus" silhouette="maniraptora">
+ <AUTHOR name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Holtz" year="1996"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <LOW>big-</LOW>handed raiders
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Manuraptora"/>
+ <UNNAMED q="1" comment="2-meter-long">
+ <REMAINS content="multiple specimens"/>
+ <TIME value="Turonian" section="middle"/>
+ <PLACE name="New Mexico"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="(oviraptorosaurian?)">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="NMV" id="P186386" content="right surangular (lower jaw part)"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="NMV" id="P186302" content="vertebra" q="1"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="K" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Hauterivian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Russia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Hauterivian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Spain"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Hauterivian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Lebanon"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Spain"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="feather impression"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Palaeopteryx" q="1" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protarchaeopteryx" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Timimus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE in="Neornithes, Oviraptor">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Maniraptora" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CLADE in="Oviraptor" out="Neornithes">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Oviraptorosauria" sensu="Currie, Padian" year="1997"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="late" value="LJ"/>
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ <REMAINS content="neck vertebrae"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" q="1">
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <REMAINS content="neck vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" q="1" name="Shanyangosaurus"/>
+ <CLINK name="Therizinosauria"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <REMAINS content="jaws"/>
+ <PLACE name="Kazakhstan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ <TIME value="LJ" section="late"/>
+ <REMAINS content="caudal vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Caudipteryx" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thecocoelurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Microvenator"/>
+ <CLINK name="Oviraptorosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Paraves" in="Neornithes" out="Oviraptor" silhouette="paraves">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ beside <LINK content="Aves"/>
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Kimmeridgian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Colorado"/>
+ <REMAINS content="disarticulated bones"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" q="1"/>
+ <REMAINS content="dorsal vertebra, 3 caudal centra, complete rib, partial metatrasal II, manual & pedal unguals"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large" silhouette="paraves-flightless">
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Turonian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="left ungual phalanx (digit II), right metatarsal II, etc."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE name="Eumaniraptora" in="Neornithes, Deinonychus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Padian, Hutchinson, Holtz" year="1998"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ true maniraptors
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eumanuraptora"/>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Sinornithosaurus" q="1">
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ <TIME value="Barremian" section="middle" q="1"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="NGMC" id="91" age="subadult" content="complete skeleton with well-preserved feathery integument"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Microraptor" incertae="1" silhouette="deinonychosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Rahonavis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinornithosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Unenlagia" silhouette="paraves-flightless"/>
+ <CLINK name="Deinonychosauria"/>
+ <CLINK name="Avialae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Alvarezsauria" incertae="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptoriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora"/>
+ <CLADE name="Arctometatarsalia">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Bullatosauria" in="Ornithomimus, Troodon">
+ <AUTHOR name="Holtz" year="1994"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" year="1996"/>
+ <MEANING>pneumatic <LOW>braincase</LOW> lizards</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannoraptora" in="Neornithes, Tyrannosaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ tyrant raiders
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Scipionyx"/>
+ <CLADE name="Compsognathidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptoriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauria"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Caudipteryx"/>
+ <CLADE name="Oviraptorosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Paraves">
+ <CLADE name="Eumaniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Avialae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Deinonychosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Dromaeosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptoriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Arctometatarsalia">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithomimosauria" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauria" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimoidea" sensu="Sereno">
+ <CLADE name="Alvarezsauria">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Alvarezsauridae" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimosauria">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithomimidae" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannoraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Maniraptora" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Caudipteryx"/>
+ <CLADE name="Oviraptorosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Paraves">
+ <CLADE name="Eumaniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Avialae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Deinonychosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Dromaeosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Compsognathia">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Compsognathus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sinosauropterygiformes" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Scipionyx"/>
+ <CLADE name="Compsognathidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornitholestidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Ornitholestes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Piveteausaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Proceratosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptoriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora"/>
+ <CLADE name="Arctometatarsalia">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Bullatosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimosauria">
+ <CGENUS name="Pelecanimimus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimoidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauria">
+ <CGENUS name="Harpymimus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauroidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Paraves"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Oviraptorosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannoraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Compsognathidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptoriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Maniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Oviraptorosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Paraves">
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eumaniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Deinonychosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Avialae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Paraves">
+ <CGENUS name="Dromaeosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eumaniraptora">
+ <CLADE name="Avialae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Deinonychosauria">
+ <CGENUS name="Deinonychus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saurornithoides"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Velociraptor"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="History">Coelurosauria once included all the small <LINK content="theropods"/>.
+It was the sister group to <LINK content="Carnosauria"/>, which included
+all the big theropods. This system of theropod classification has become
+very much outdated, but the original names are still kept for certain
+actual groups. If the more primitive forms of the old Coelurosauria are
+excluded and a few other forms are added (including <LINK
+content="birds"/>), they do form a monophyletic group. Interestingly,
+this group that once contained only small theropods now includes <NOMEN
+name="Tyrannosaurus rex"/>, one of the largest theropods, indeed, one of
+the largest land predators of all time.</P>
+
+<P>Coelurosaurs are an enormously diverse group. They include <LINK
+content="fast runners"/>, <LINK content="night prowlers"/>, <LINK
+content="gigantic predators"/>, <LINK content="toothless weirdos"/>, <LINK
+content="vicious carnivores"/>, and the incredibly varied birds. </P>
+
+<P header="Integument"> Skin impressions are known from several coelurosaurs.
+A partial impression, possibly from the tail of a <LINK content="tyrannosaur"/>
+shows scales like those seen in other dinosaurs. All other
+coelurosaur skin impressions, such as those of <NOMEN name="Sinosauropteryx"/>,
+<NOMEN name="Protarchaeopteryx"/>, <NOMEN name="Caudipteryx"/>, <NOMEN
+name="Beipiaosaurus"/>, <NOMEN name="Sinornithosaurus"/>, and birds like
+<NOMEN name="Archaeopteryx"/>,
+show feathers or feather-like integument. Such integument may have been
+present in the earliest coelurosaurs, then lost in gigantic forms, much as
+gigantic <LINK content="mammals"/> tend not to have hair. </P>
+
+<P header="Classification and Characters"> The advanced coelurosaurs make up
+Maniraptoriformes. All
+maniraptoriforms sharing a more recent ancestor with <NOMEN
+name="Ornithomimus"/> than with birds are arctometatarsalians. All sharing
+a more recent ancestor with birds than with <NOMEN name="Ornithomimus"/>
+are maniraptors. It is not certain whether some groups (coelurids,
+compsognathids, ornitholestids, etc.) belong to one of these two groups
+or fall outside of Maniraptoriformes. </P>
+
+<P> Arctometatarsalia originally included <LINK content="caenagnathids"/>,
+avimimids, tyrannosauroids, troodontids, and ornithomimosaurs. It was
+named for the arctometatarsalian foot of these animals, wherein the
+middle metatarsal is pinched at the top. This trait, an adaptation for
+running, is now thought to have evolved separately in caenagnathids
+and possibly in all five of the groups. <LINK content="Mononykines"/>
+have an extreme version of this feature. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Coronosauria" nickname="Horned Dinosaurs & Kin">
+ <WORD key="1" content="frilled, horned"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Coronosauria" in="Triceratops, Protoceratops" silhouette="coronosauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ crowned lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Bagaceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Breviceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protoceratops"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsoidea" in="Ceratops, Montanoceratops" silhouette="ceratopsoidea">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopoidea"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Montanoceratops"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsomorpha" in="Ceratops, Zuniceratops" silhouette="ceratopsomorpha">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Ceratops"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Zuniceratops"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Turanoceratops"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsidae" in="Ceratops, Centrosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Agathaumidae"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopidae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Agathaumas" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Claorhynchus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dysganus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Centrosaurinae"/>
+ <CLINK name="Ceratopsinae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Coronosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsoidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Protoceratopsidae" in="Protoceratops" out="Ceratops">
+ <CGENUS name="Bagaceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Breviceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protoceratops"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopsoidea"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopsomorpha"/>
+ <CLADE name="Centrosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Montanoceratops"/>
+ <CLADE comment="other centrosaurines"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Zuniceratops"/>
+ <CLADE comment="other ceratopsines"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsomorpha"/>
+ <CLADE name="Leptoceratopsidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Leptoceratopidae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Leptoceratops"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Montanoceratops"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE in="Avaceratops, Chasmosaurus, Centrosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratopsidae" sensu="Penkalski, Dodson" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Avaceratops"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratopsidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Characteristics"> This group includes all of the quadrupedal <LINK
+content="ceratopsians"/>. Coronosaurs tend to be larger and have larger
+neck frills than more primitive ceratopsians. There has been much dispute
+as to whether the front limbs of coronosaurs were held fully erect or
+sprawling to various degrees. An intermediate posture seems most likely. </P>
+
+<P> The most primitive coronosaurs, like the well-known <NOMEN
+name="Protoceratops"/>, lacked horns, although they bore small bumps on
+their noses. <NOMEN name="Montanoceratops"/>, the most primitive known
+ceratopsoid, possessed a true horn on its nose. In addition to the nasal
+horn ceratopsomorphs like <NOMEN name="Zuniceratops"/> possessed brow
+horns above their eyes. </P>
+
+<P> The function of the neck frills in these and other ceratopsians is not
+certain. They may have borne colorful displays, protected the neck from
+predators, anchored powerful cheek muscles, amplified low-frequency sounds,
+or performed a combination of these functions. In <NOMEN name="Protoceratops"/>, one gender (male?) has
+a much wider frill than the other, supporting the idea that these were
+used as sexual displays. </P>
+
+<P header="The Mighty Ceratopsids"> Hailing from the very latest stretch of
+the <LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>, ceratopsids were the pinnacle of
+<LINK content="ceratopsian"/> evolution. They included some of the very
+largest <LINK
+content="ornithischians"/>, such as the mighty <NOMEN
+name="Triceratops"/>. They are only known from North America (unless the
+Asian <NOMEN name="Turanoceratops"/> is really a ceratopsid). </P>
+
+<P> Skin impressions are known from both centrosaurine ceratopsids (<NOMEN
+name="Centrosaurus"/>) and ceratopsine ceratopsids (<NOMEN
+name="Chasmosaurus"/>). They both show large, flat scales interspersed
+with larger, round tubercles. </P>
+
+<P header="Classification"> The genera listed here, plus other <LINK content="neoceratopsians"/>
+were once grouped in the family Protoceratopsidae (=Protoceratopidae),
+since they all had claws instead of hooves. Most now consider this a
+paraphyletic (and hence invalid) grouping. There may, however, be a
+monophyletic (hence valid) group of basal coronosaurs which would be
+termed Protoceratopsidae. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Crocodylomorpha" nickname='"Crocs"' simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" essay="1" content="crocodile, crocodilian"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Crocodylus, Deinosuchus, Phobosuchus, Purussaurus, Simosuchus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Crocodylomorpha" silhouette="crocodylomorpha">
+ <AUTHOR name="Walker" year="1970"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Crocodylus"/> <LOW>(crocodile)</LOW> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Sphenosuchidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Crocodyliformes">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Crocodylus"/> <LOW>(crocodile)</LOW> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Crocodylia" sensu="lato"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eopneumatosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gobiosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Orthosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Protosuchidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Mesoeucrocodylia">
+ <MEANING>
+ intermediate true crocodylians
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Fruita"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mahajangasuchus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Baurusuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Notosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Libycosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sebecus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Araripesuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Neosuchia">
+ <CLADE name="Atoposauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Bernissartia" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Goniopholis" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Eutretauranosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dyrosauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pholidosaurus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Thalattosuchia" extinct="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Pelagosaurus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Metrorhynchidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Teleosauridae" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Eusuchia">
+ <CGENUS name="Hylaeochampsa" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Crocodylia" crown="1">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Crocodylus"/>' <LOW>(crocodile) taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Gavialoidea" in="Gavialis" out="Alligator, Crocodylus">
+ <CGENUS name="Thoracosaurus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Eogavialis" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gryposuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gavialidae" crown="1" content="gavials (or gharials)"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Borealosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pristichampus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Brevirostres" in="Alligator, Crocodylus">
+ <MEANING>
+ short rostrums
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Alligatoroidea" in="Alligator" out="Crocodylus, Gavialis">
+ <CGENUS name="Deinosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Leidyosuchus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Diplocynodon" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Alligatoridae" crown="1" content="alligators, caimans, nettosuchines, Purussaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Crocodyloidea" in="Crocodylus" out="Alligator, Gavialis">
+ <UNNAMED comment="Dormaal"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Prodiplocynodon" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Asiatosuchus germanicus" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name='"Crocodylus" affinis' extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Brachyuranochampsa" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name='"Crocodylus" acer' extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Crocodylidae" crown="1" content="crocodiles"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Crocodylomorphs originated around the same time as the <LINK
+content="dinosaurs"/>. They were the only <LINK content="pseudosuchians"/>
+to survive the <LINK content="Triassic"/>, and survive to the present day
+in the form of crocodylians. Of all living animals, crocodylians are the
+closest relatives to dinosaurs (excluding <LINK content="modern birds"/>,
+which <B>are</B> dinosaurs). Unlike other living <LINK
+content="sauropsids"/> (except for birds), crocodylians have a
+four-chambered heart and a semi-upright stance. </P>
+
+<P> Some "primitive" crocodylomorphs may have been more active and agile
+than today's crocodylians, which have evolved a relatively sluggish
+lifestyle. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Deinonychosauria" nickname="Sickle-Clawed Killers">
+ <WORD key="1" content="dromy, dromies, raptors, 'raptors, sickle, switchblade, claw"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="vicious carnivores"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Deinonychosauria" in="Deinonychus" out="Neornithes" silhouette="deinonychosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Colbert, Russell" year="1969"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" name="Currie, Padian" year="1997"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/> lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="K" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="N. America"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" q="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian" section="late"/>
+ <PLACE name="France"/>
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="dromaeosaurine?">
+ <PLACE name="Denmark"/>
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large">
+ <PLACE name="Sudan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="medium-sized">
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Achillobator"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Adasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Bambiraptor" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" q="1" name="Koreanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megaraptor" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nuthetes" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" q="1" name="Ornithodesmus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Pyroraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Utahraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Variraptor"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dromaeosauridae" in="Dromaeosaurus, Velociraptor">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithodesmidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dromaeosaurinae" in="Dromaeosaurus" out="Velociraptor">
+ <CGENUS name="Dromaeosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Velociraptorinae" in="Velociraptor" out="Dromaeosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Deinonychus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saurornitholestes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Velociraptor"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Coelurosauria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="A Deadly Weapon"> <ILLO align="right" name="dromaeosaurid_pes"/> The most striking
+feature of the dromaeosaurids was the large second claw of the foot, which
+was highly mobile and could swing back and forth, thus giving it the
+nickname "switchblade claw" or "sickle claw". Similar claws were present
+on the feet of other primitive <LINK content="paravians"/>, as well as
+<LINK content="troodontids"/> (which may be paravians) and, to a lesser
+extent, <NOMEN name="Noasaurus"/>. Troodontids were once included in
+Deinonychosauria because of their "sickle claws", but they are usually now
+recognized as relatives of <LINK content="ornithomimosaurs"/> (a.k.a.
+"ostrich mimics"). </P>
+
+<P> The attack strategy of a dromaeosaurid was possibly to leap at its
+prey, feet and arms extended. This posture would be balanced by the long,
+stiff tail. The dromaeosaurid would grab onto its prey with cruel,
+grasping hands, then tear out the unfortunate creature's throat or guts
+with the eviscerating foot-claws. </P>
+
+<P> The energy and quickness needed to carry out such a maneuver is one
+piece of evidence used in the debate over whether <LINK
+content="dinosaurs"/> were cold-blooded or warm-blooded. </P>
+
+<P header="Speculation on Behavior"> These dinosaurs may have hunted in packs, as shown by one find where
+three <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/> skeletons were found near a skeleton of
+the herbivore <NOMEN name="Tenontosaurus"/>. But another dromaeosaurid
+find shows a solitary <NOMEN name="Velociraptor"/> locked in combat with a
+<NOMEN name="Protoceratops"/>. It may be that these creatures used
+whatever hunting strategy fitted the situation, as wolves (<NOMEN
+name="Canis lupus" nolink="1"/>) do today, or that behavior varied between
+species, as in gregarious lions (<NOMEN name="Panthera leo" nolink="1"/>)
+and solitary tigers (<NOMEN name="Panthera tigris" nolink="1"/>). </P>
+
+<P header="Feathered Friends"> Dromaeosaurids were probably very close to
+<LINK content="bird"/> ancestry, as shown by their bird-like hip arrangement
+(unusual for non-<LINK content="avian"/> <LINK content="saurischians"/>),
+extremely stiffened tails, and their similarity to the feathered, flying
+<NOMEN name="Archaeopteryx"/>. In fact, the most recently published
+deinonychosaur, <NOMEN name="Sinornithosaurus"/>, shows impressions
+of feathers or feather-like integument (not too much of a surprise,
+since feathered dinosaurs less closely related to birds had already been
+found). They may have even been secondarily flightless,
+like modern-day <LINK content="ratite"/> birds.</P>
+
+<P header="Movie Stars"> "'Raptors" were one of the major stars of the blockbuster movie
+<U>Jurassic Park</U>. Although this movie and its sequel, <U>Jurassic Park
+2: The Lost World</U> boasts the most accurate dinosaurs in the history of
+movies, there are a significant number of errors, especially with the
+"'raptors". The most obvious problem is that they were much too big. Real
+<NOMEN name="Velociraptor"/> were about the size of jackals. Even <NOMEN
+name="Velociraptor"/>'s big brother <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/> wasn't as
+big as <U>Jurassic Park</U>'s "'raptors". </P>
+
+<P> The reason for this is probably as follows. Michael Crichton wanted to
+use a fierce, approximately man-sized predator. <NOMEN
+name="Deinonychus"/> was ideal. But he also wanted the name <NOMEN
+name="Velociraptor"/> for plot reasons. Luckily for him, there was one
+dinosaur researcher who believed the two dinosaurs were similar enough to
+be in the same genus, which by virtue of seniority would be called <NOMEN
+name="Velociraptor"/>. So, Crichton used <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/> but
+called it <NOMEN name="Velociraptor"/>. (Since then, new studies of the
+skulls have shown them to be separate genera.) </P>
+
+<P> For the movie they decided to bump the size up. They also gave it a
+more <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/>-like head, unlike <NOMEN
+name="Velociraptor"/>'s, which has a rather concave snout. </P>
+
+<P> Interestingly, while the movie was being made, a new dromaeosaurid was
+found which was even larger than the movie's "'raptor". The discovery of
+this new dinosaur (<NOMEN name="Utahraptor"/>) showed that there actually
+must have been a <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/>-like creature about the same
+size as the ones in Jurassic Park, an intermediate in size between
+<NOMEN name="Utahraptor"/> and <NOMEN name="Deinonychus"/>. In fact, some
+undescribed forms may fit the bill. </P>
+
+<P> So the "'raptor" in <U>Jurassic Park</U> is probably a decent
+approximation of a real, undescribed dromaeosaurid (not a <NOMEN
+name="Velociraptor"/>, though), except for some further inaccuracies, like
+the flexible tail, the incorrect hands, and the lack of feathers. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Dinosauria" nickname='"Fearfully Great Reptiles"'>
+ <WORD key="1" content="terrible, fearfully, great, lizards, reptiles, hip, pelvis"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="saurischian dinosaurs"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauria" in="Neornithes, Triceratops" silhouette="dinosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Owen" year="1842"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Padian, May" year="1993"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ fearfully great lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithoscelida"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pachypoda"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Pachypodes"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mississippi"/>
+ <REMAINS content="sacrum"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Baluchistani">
+ <PLACE name="Pakistan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="over 100 bones"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="4.5m-long Liaoning">
+ <PLACE name="China"/> <TIME value="Barremian" section="middle"/>
+ <REMAINS content="complete skeleton"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Luanpingosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Teyuwasu"/>
+ <CLINK name="Ornithischia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Saurischia" in="Neornithes" out="Triceratops">
+ <AUTHOR name="Seeley" year="1888"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ lizard<LOW>-like</LOW> ischia
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Eshanosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Sauropodomorpha"/>
+ <CLINK name="Theropoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Eoraptor"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Herrerasauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithischia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Saurischia">
+ <CGENUS name="Eoraptor"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Herrerasauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eusaurischia" status="informal">
+ <MEANING>
+ true saurischians
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropodomorpha"/>
+ <CLADE name="Theropoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauria">
+ <CLADE name="Theropoda"/>
+ <CLADE name="Phytodinosauria">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithischia"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ plant<LOW>-eating</LOW> dinosaurs
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropodomorpha" comment="altered definition"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithischia" comment="altered definition"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="The Divisions"> There are three major types of dinosaur. <LINK content="Theropoda"/>
+includes all of the carnivorous dinosaurs, as well as their modern-day
+descendants, the <LINK content="birds"/>. <LINK
+content="Sauropodomorpha"/> consists of long-necked herbivorous dinosaurs,
+including <LINK content="sauropods"/>, the largest land
+animals of all time. The third group, <LINK content="Ornithischia"/>,
+contains many diverse forms of beaked, herbivorous dinosaurs. </P>
+
+<P header="Evolution and Relationships"> Although the major groups of
+dinosaurs are clearly recognized, there
+is some debate about their relationships to each other and to the
+ancestors of dinosaurs. About the only thing that can be confidently
+stated about early dinosaurian/<LINK content="ornithodiran"/> evolution is
+that the following evolutionary lineage occured:
+<DIAGRAM>
+ancestral ornithodiran
+ |
+ +--><NOMEN name="Lagerpeton"/>
+ |
+ +--><NOMEN name="Marasuchus"/>
+ |
+ +--><NOMEN name="Pseudolagosuchus"/>
+ |
+ +--><NOMEN name="Eoraptor"/>
+ |
+ +--><NOMEN name="Herrerasaurus"/>
+ |
+ \/
+ <LINK content="Neotheropoda"/>
+</DIAGRAM> </P>
+
+<P> <LINK content="Pterosaurs"/> are thought to have split off from this
+lineage probably before <NOMEN name="Lagerpeton"/> (some don't think
+pterosaurs are particularly closely related to dinosaurs at all).
+Ornithischians probably split off somewhere before <NOMEN name="Eoraptor"/>,
+but perhaps between <NOMEN name="Herrerasaurus"/> and
+Neotheropoda. Sauropodomorphs could have split off anywhere before
+Neotheropoda, but after Ornithischia, or possibly with it. </P>
+
+<P header="Definition"> The confusion about dinosaur ancestry leads to the question "What is a
+dinosaur?" The original definition of Dinosauria, as stated by Sir Richard
+Owen in 1842, was a group of large <LINK content="reptiles"/> (which he
+considered a type of <LINK content="lizard"/>) consisting of <NOMEN
+name="Megalosaurus"/>, <NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/>, and <NOMEN
+name="Hylaeosaurus"/>, the only non-<LINK content="neornithean"/> dinosaur
+genera described at that time (save for <NOMEN name="Cetiosaurus"/> and
+<NOMEN name="Streptospondylus"/>, which Owen thought to be aquatic, <LINK
+content="crocodile"/>-like creatures, and some mainland European forms
+like <NOMEN name="Plateosaurus"/> and <NOMEN name="Poekilopleuron"/>,
+which Owen had not examined). </P>
+
+<P> Dinosauria was traditionally divided into the orders Ornithischia
+("bird hips" -- a misleading term) and Saurischia ("lizard hips"). For
+much of the history of paleontology, the status of Dinosauria as a real
+group has been considered dubious -- Ornithischia and Saurischia were
+separated from each other and sometimes were themselves split up. More
+recently, however, cladistic analysis has reaffirmed Dinosauria as a
+natural group. It is defined as the most recent common ancestor of <LINK
+content="modern birds"/> (which are now considered saurischians) and
+<NOMEN name="Triceratops"/> (an ornithischian), plus all of that
+ancestor's descendants. (As some have noted, it might have been more
+proper to use <NOMEN name="Megalosaurus"/> and <NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/>
+as anchors instead of birds and <NOMEN name="Triceratops"/>, but this
+phylogenetic definition has priority, and, by all cladistic studies,
+represents the same group anyway. Besides, the type specimens of <NOMEN
+name="Iguanodon"/> and <NOMEN name="Megalosaurus"/> are rather poor.) </P>
+
+<P> This definition has lead to some disagreement as to whether certain
+primitive ornithodirans are dinosaurs or not. Some include all of the
+genera shown in the above lineage in Dinosauria, whereas others don't even
+consider <LINK content="herrerasaurids"/> to be true dinosaurs. On these
+pages <NOMEN name="Eoraptor"/> is considered the most primitive known true
+dinosaur, and probably a primitive theropod, due to such characteristics
+as highly reduced manual digits IV and V (neotheropods have no digit V and
+either no digit IV or a reduced one). </P>
+
+<P header="An Alternate View"> <ILLO name="saurischian_pelvis" caption="saurischian pelvis" align="left"/>
+<ILLO name="ornithischian_pelvis" caption="ornithischian pelvis" align="right"/>
+The uncertainty revolving about the origins of the major dinosaur groups
+has also caused another debate. Traditionally, Sauropodomorpha has been
+grouped with Theropoda in Saurischia, sister group to the Ornithischia.
+This is due to the fact that both saurischian groups have a primitive
+lizard-like hip bone arrangement, with the pubis pointing forward (except
+for some advanced groups), while ornithischians have a derived,
+superficially bird-like arrangement where a process on the pubis points
+backwards. (In birds and some bird-like theropods, the pubis itself
+points backwards.) </P>
+
+<P> But a minority claim that early sauropodomorphs show more similarities
+to early ornithischians than to theropods. They classify Sauropodomorpha
+and Ornithischia in Phytodinosauria ("plant dinosaurs") as a sister taxon
+to Theropoda. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Diplodocidae" nickname="Whip-Tails & Earth-Shakers">
+ <WORD key="1" content="giant, huge, long, longest, biggest, whip, tail, whiptail, quake, seism"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Diplodocidae" silhouette="diplodocidae">
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <PLACE name="England"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Dinheirosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dyslocosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dystrophaeus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Apatosaurinae" silhouette="apatosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Apatosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eobrontosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Diplodocinae">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <PLACE name="Georgian Republic"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Barosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Diplodocus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Dystylosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Seismosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Supersaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Diplodocids included some of the hugest creatures to walk upon the
+Earth. <NOMEN name="Supersaurus"/> and <NOMEN name="Seismosaurus"/>
+probably weighed in at 45-60 metric tonnes. </P>
+
+<P header="Digital Dinos"> These animals have been the focus of several computer-assisted studies
+in biophysics. One study suggests that diplodocids could actually crack
+their tails like whips, causing loud sonic booms. Another study, focusing
+on the other end of the animals, suggests that they could not hold their
+heads very high, and thus may have fed on low-growing vegetation. This
+goes against previous thought that <LINK content="sauropods"/> evolved their
+long necks to reach into the trees. </P>
+
+<P header="Integument"> Recently a diplodocid was found with non-bony dermal spines along its
+back. Since non-bony structures are rarely preserved, it is not certain
+how widely throughout <LINK content="Sauropodomorpha"/> this feature
+existed. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Diplodocimorpha" nickname="Sailback Sauropods & Kin">
+ <WORD key="1" content="sail, sailback, finback"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Diplodocimorpha" in="Diplodocus" out="Saltasaurus" silhouette="diplodocimorpha">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Diplodocus"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Hisanohamasaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megacervixosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mongolosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Amphicoelias"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Losillasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rebbachisauridae" silhouette="rebbachisauridae">
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="S. America"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <REMAINS content="dentary"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Histriasaurus" q="1" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nigersaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rayososaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rebbachisaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Limaysaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rebbachisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Diplodocoidea" in="Diplodocus, Dicraeosaurus">
+ <UNNAMED><PLACE name="Niger"/><TIME value="Cenomanian"/><REMAINS content="cervical & dorsal vertebrae"/></UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE name="Dicraeosauridae">
+ <UNNAMED cf="Dicraeosaurus" q="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Amargasaurus" silhouette="amargasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dicraeosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Diplodocidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Diplodocimorpha">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Diplodocoidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rebbachisauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Antarctosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Nemegtosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Nemegtosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Quaesitosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Members of this group had long, whip-like tails
+(possibly used for defense), peg-like teeth, and high vertebral spines.
+The extremely long spines of some diplodocimorphs, such as
+<NOMEN name="Amargasaurus"/> and <NOMEN name="Rebbachisaurus"/>,
+may have formed large dorsal sails, like those of the
+<LINK content="theropod"/> <NOMEN name="Spinosaurus"/> and the
+<LINK content="ornithopod"/> <NOMEN name="Ouranosaurus"/>. </P>
+
+<P> Some of these animals, like the dicraeosaurids, made it into the
+Cretaceous, but not to the end of the Mesozoic Era. </P>
+
+<P header="The Elusive Giant"> There is a possible diplodocimorph named <NOMEN name="Amphicoelias fragillimus"/>, known
+from a drawing of a crumbling neural arch. Based on comparison to
+other diplodocimorphs, it would have been about 50m long and weighed about
+120-150 tonnes, making it by far the largest land creature of all time!
+Unfortunately, the actual specimen has been lost, presumably disintegrated,
+for a long time (if it ever, indeed, existed). </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Enantiornithes" nickname='"Opposite Birds"'>
+ <WORD key="1" content="bird, toothed, toothless, teeth, opposite, avian"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Enantiornithes" in="Enantiornis" out="Neornithes" silhouette="pygostylia">
+ <MEANING>
+ opposite birds
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED comment="juvenile">
+ <PLACE name="Spain"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="dentary"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="furcula"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="tibia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="coracoid"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="synsacrum"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="medium-large Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="synsacrum"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="humerus"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="humerus"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Maevarano">
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="humerus"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Alexornis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Boluochia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Eoalulavis"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Gurilynia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Horezmavis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kizylkumavis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lenesornis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Liaoxiornis" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Longchengornis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sazavis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Enantiornithiformes" incertae="1">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Enantiornis"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Enantiornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Eoenantiornithiformes" incertae="1">
+ <MEANING><NOMEN name="Eoenantiornis"/> forms</MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Eoenantiornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cuspirostrisornithidae" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Cuspirostrisornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Largirostrisornis" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Gobipterygidae" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Gobipteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nanantius" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Sinornithiformes" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Cathayornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Iberomesornis" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Lectavis"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Yungavolucris"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Concornis" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Avisauridae" in="Neuquenornis, Avisaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Chiappe" year="1993"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Neuquenornis"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Avisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Soroavisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Characteristics"> Enantiornitheans were a large group of <LINK content="birds"/> which
+evolved alongside modern-style birds, or <LINK content="neornitheans"/>,
+during the <LINK content="Cretaceous Period"/>. Their name ("opposite birds")
+refers
+to the articulation of the scapula with the coracoid, opposite to that of
+modern birds. Like neornitheans, advanced enantiornitheans were toothless.
+These two lineages, along with <LINK content="confuciusornithids"/>,
+<LINK content="oviraptorosaurs"/>, and <LINK content="ornithomimosaurs"/>,
+represent the five known lineages of toothless
+<LINK content="coelurosaur"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Rise and Fall"> Enantiornitheans achieved a fair degree of
+diversity, beginning as
+small, perching fliers, with some developing into shorebirds. They
+ranged from sparrow- to vulture-size. </P>
+
+<P> Although apparently more plentiful than their neornithean cousins
+during the Cretaceous, enantiornitheans, like all non-neornithean
+dinosaurs, became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. Why neornitheans
+survived while they did not remains a mystery. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Hadrosaurinae" nickname="Small- & Non-Crested Duckbills" silhouette="edmontosaurini">
+ <WORD key="1" content="hadrosaur, ducknill, duck, bill, non, crest, crested"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="gryposaurin hadrosaurine"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Hadrosaurinae" in="Hadrosaurus" out="Lambeosaurus" silhouette="hadrosaurinae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Saurolophinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Microhadrosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thespesius" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Maiasaurini" silhouette="maiasaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Brachylophosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Maiasaura"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Hadrosaurini">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Gryposaurini"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Hadrosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Aralosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gryposaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kritosaurus" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Edmontosaurini" silhouette="edmontosaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Anatotitan"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Edmontosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shantungosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tanius" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Saurolophini">
+ <CGENUS name="Prosaurolophus" silhouette="prosaurolophus-saurolophus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saurolophus" silhouette="prosaurolophus-saurolophus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> These "duck-billed" <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> were mostly non-crested,
+although some, like <NOMEN name="Maiasaura"/> and <NOMEN name="Saurolophus"/>,
+had small, spiky crests. Hadrosaurines include the largest
+<LINK content="ornithopods"/> of all time, such as the enormous
+<NOMEN name="Shantungosaurus"/>, which was on par with small- to medium-sized
+<LINK content="sauropods"/>. </P>
+
+<P> Before the discovery of <NOMEN name="Hadrosaurus"/>, dinosaurs were
+generally thought to be
+all quadrupedal. <NOMEN name="Hadrosaurus"/>' long hindlimbs and relatively
+short forelimbs indicated otherwise. It was originally reconstructed
+standing upright, like a human. Now it is thought that all hadrosaurs,
+indeed, all <LINK content="iguanodontians"/> were facultatively
+quadrupedal, able to move on all fours or on two legs, with the back
+horizontal in all positions. </P>
+
+<P> The old genus <NOMEN name="Anatosaurus"/> has recently been sunk into
+<NOMEN name="Edmontosaurus"/>, except for one separate species, for which
+the generic name <NOMEN name="Anatotitan"/> was coined. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Hadrosauroidea" nickname="Duck-Billed Dinosaurs">
+ <WORD key="1" content="duckbill, duck, bill, duckbilled, sail, finback, sailback, fin"/>
+ <WORD key="1" essay="1" content="hadrosaur, hadrosaurs"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="duck-bill, duck-billed dinosaurs"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Hadrosauroidea" in="Hadrosaurus" out="Iguanodon" silhouette="hadrosauroidea">
+ <UNNAMED comment="sail-backed" q="1" silhouette="ouranosaurus">
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Altirhinus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ouranosaurus" silhouette="ouranosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Nanyangosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hadrosauridae">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Belgium"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="late" value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Italy"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="femur, ischium"/>
+ <TIME value="Coniacian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="phalanx, caudal centrum"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mississippi"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ <TIME value="Coniacian"/>
+ <TIME value="Santonian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <REMAINS content="dorsal vertebrae, scapula, manual elements"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Antarctica"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian" section="late"/>
+ <PLACE name="France"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian" section="latest" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="Chronister">
+ <TIME value="LK"/><PLACE name="Missouri"/>
+ <REMAINS content="vertebrae, phalanx, teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Cerro del Pueblo">
+ <TIME value="Campanian" section="late"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mexico"/>
+ <REMAINS content="nearly complete skeleton with skin impressions from tail, limbs, and hip"/>
+ <REMAINS content="unassociated skin impressions"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Hironosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Hypsibema"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Mandschurosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Orthomerus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Secernosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protohadros"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Claosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gilmoreosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Telmatosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Euhadrosauria" in="Hadrosaurus, Lambeosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Hadrosauridae" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CLINK name="Lambeosaurinae"/>
+ <CLINK name="Hadrosaurinae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Iguanodontia"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> These are commonly known as the "duck-billed" dinosaurs, since their
+beaks bore a superficial resemblance to those of ducks. They were the last,
+largest, and most numerous of the <LINK content="ornithopods"/>. </P>
+
+<P> More "primitive" hadrosauroids like <NOMEN name="Ouranosaurus"/>
+had small thumb-spikes,
+like the larger thumb-spikes of other <LINK content="iguanodontians"/>.
+This digit was lost entirely in hadrosaurids. <NOMEN name="Ouranosaurus"/>
+and an unnamed hadrosauroid possessed large sails on their backs, like those
+of <NOMEN name="Spinosaurus"/> and
+<NOMEN name="Rebbachisaurus"/>. </P>
+
+<P> Hadrosaurids are divided into two subfamilies, the generally non-crested
+hadrosaurines and the lambeosaurines, which developed large hollow crests
+on their heads. At least one scientist considers them to be two separate families,
+with <NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/> closer to the hadrosaurids and
+<NOMEN name="Ouranosaurus"/> closer to the lambeosaurids. </P>
+
+<P header="In Water or On Land?"> It was once thought that the duck-bills, like their namesakes, were
+aquatic. This notion seemed to be supported when a fossilized "mummy" of a
+hadrosaurid was discovered, showing what appeared to be webbed fingers on
+the hands. The hollow crests of the lambeosaurines were supposed to be for
+air storage, since they connected to the nasal passages. </P>
+
+<P> This theory is largely out of favor now. The "webbed" fingers, upon
+closer scrutiny, more closely resemble desiccated hoof pads. The crests
+could not have functioned as air storage, since they were rigid and
+inflexible. Air sucked out of them would have created a vacuum. And the
+rugged teeth of the hadrosaurids strongly indicate that they ate rough, woody
+plant material, not soft seaweed. The teeth in the jaw were aligned in great
+"batteries", so that if one wore out there was another one behind it to
+replace it. Some hadrosaurid jaws contained as much as 2,000 teeth! </P>
+
+<P> It seems that duck-bills led a largely terrestrial life. They would walk
+primarily on all fours, as shown by the hoof-like nails and supporting pads
+on the hands, but were easily capable of switching to bipedal locomotion. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Hesperornithiformes" nickname="Toothed Marine Birds">
+ <WORD key="1" content="bird, toothed, teeth, avian, aquatic, loon, marine, sea, seagoing, sea-going, oceanic, water, swimming, diving"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Hesperornithiformes" silhouette="hesperornithiformes">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Hesperornis"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Enaliornis"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pasquiaornis"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Baptornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Judinornis"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hesperornithidae">
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Coniornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Asiahesperornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Parascaniornis"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hesperornithinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Hesperornis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Parahesperornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> These are the only known marine <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> of the
+<LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>! Hesperornithiforms had adapted to life in
+the oceans of Laurasia, and are best known from the
+North American interior, which was covered by a large sea during much of the
+<LINK content="Cretaceous"/>. </P>
+
+<P> Unlike the major modern-day group of marine birds (penguins),
+which have flipper-like wings, hesperornithiforms propelled
+themselves with large, (presumably) webbed feet, like loons
+and grebes. Their wings had atrophied to tiny, useless things, and their
+feet were set so far back that walking must have been extremely awkward.
+Thus, they probably spent very nearly all of their time in the water. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Heterodontosauridae" nickname="Little Tuskers">
+ <WORD key="1" content="heterodontosaur, fang, caniniform, tusk, tusker, tooth, teeth"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="lithe tuskers"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Heterodontosauridae" silhouette="cerapoda">
+ <AUTHOR name="Romer" year="1966"/>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small">
+ <TIME value="EJ"/>
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Dianchungosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Geranosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lanasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Heterodontosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Abrictosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Heterodontosaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Heterodontosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lycorhinus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Heterodontosaurids were a group of small, primitive
+<LINK content="ornithischians"/>
+from the <LINK content="Early Jurassic"/>. They
+were all fairly similar to each other. Some species, such as
+<NOMEN name="Heterodontosaurus tucki"/>, bore small tusks while others, like
+<NOMEN name="Abrictosaurus consors"/>, were tuskless. It has been suggested
+that perhaps only one gender bore tusks, and what are currently considered
+separate
+species may only be separate genders of the same species. </P>
+
+<P> Heterodontosaurids were traditionally considered primitive
+<LINK content="ornithopods"/>, although they bear a number of similarities to
+<LINK content="marginocephalians"/> as well. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ichthyopterygia" nickname="Reptilian Dolphins" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="fish, lizard, fish-lizard, marine, reptile, aquatic, sea, oceanic"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Stenopterygius"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ichthyopterygia" in="Ichthyosaurus" out="Plesiosaurus, Lepidosauria, Archosauria" silhouette="ichthyopterygia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Owen" year="1840"/>
+ <MEANING>fish flippers</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Hupehsuchidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE in="Ichthyosaurus, Parvinatator, Utatsusaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ichthyopterygia" sensu="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Isfjordosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thaisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Parvinatator"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Utatsusaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eoichthyosauria" in="Grippia, Ichthyosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <MEANING>dawn ichthyosaurs</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Grippidia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Wiman" year="1929"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chaohusaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Grippia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ichthyosauria" in="Ichthyosaurus" out="Grippia">
+ <MEANING>fish lizards/<NOMEN name="Ichthyosaurus" nolink="1">' <LOW>taxon</LOW></MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Blainville" year="1835"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mikadocephalus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name='"Shastasaurus" neubigi' incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Wimanius" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Cymbospondylus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Mixosauridae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Baur" year="1887"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Merriamosauria" in="Shastasaurus, Ichthyosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CLADE name="Shastasauria" in="Shastasaurus" out="Ichthyosaurus">
+ <MEANING><NOMEN name="Shastasaurus" nolink="1">' <LOW>taxon</LOW></MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Pessopteryx" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Shastasauridae" in="Besanosaurus, Shastasaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Merriam" year="1908"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Euichthyosauria" in="Ichthyosaurus" out="Shastasaurus">
+ <MEANING>true ichthyosaurs</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Toretocnemus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Californosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Parvipelvia" in="Macgowania, Ichthyosaurus">
+ <MEANING>small pelves <LOW>(hips)</LOW></MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Macgowania"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Hudsonelpidia"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Suevoleviathan"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Temnodontosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eurhinosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Leptonectes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Excalibosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eurhinosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Thunnosauria" in="Stenopterygius, Ichthyosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Motani" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chacaicosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stenopterygius"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Ichthyosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Opthalmosauridae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Appleby" year="1956"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Despite their name, ichthyosaurs were neither <LINK content="fish"/> nor
+<LINK content="lizards"/>, but
+a <LINK content="sauropsid"/> group of uncertain origin that evolved into
+completely marine forms. Like sharks, they had dorsal fins and a tail
+fin that swept side-to-side. </P>
+
+<P> Ichthyosaurs arose during the <LINK content="Triassic"/>, but did not
+make it to the end of the <LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>. They were gone
+before the K/T Extinction, which killed off other large marine
+<LINK content="reptiles"/> and the non-<LINK content="neornithean"/>
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>.
+</P>
+
+<P> Unlike all other advanced <LINK content="tetrapods"/>, ichthyosaurs
+had more than five digits. It was once thought that they might be related
+to very early tetrapods like <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Ichthyostega"/>, which had
+as many as eight digits, but it seems more likely that they developed the
+extra digits from an ancestor with five digits, although this is the only
+known case of this happening in all of Tetrapoda. (Usually digits are
+lost.) </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Iguanodontia" nickname="Spike-Thumbs - The Road to Duck-Bills" silhouette="iguanodontia-robust">
+ <WORD key="1" content="iguanodont, spike, thumb, first"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Iguanodontia" in="Iguanodon" out="Hypsilophodon" silhouette="ornithopoda">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/>'s <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="New Zealand"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ <TIME section="late" value="Hauterivian"/>
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <REMAINS content="ribs, etc."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small">
+ <TIME section="earliest" value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Jinzhousaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Lophorhothon"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mandschurosaurus laosensis" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Muttaburrasaurus" q="1" silhouette="iguanodontia-robust"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Tenontosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="iguanodontia-robust">
+ <CGENUS name="Rhabdodon"/>
+ <UNNAMED><PLACE name="Romania"/><TIME value="Maastrichtian"/></UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED><PLACE name="Romania"/><TIME value="Maastrichtian"/></UNNAMED>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Euiguanodontia" in="Iguanodon, Gasparinisaura">
+ <MEANING>
+ true iguanodonts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Loncosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gasparinisaura"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dryomorpha" in="Dryosaurus, Iguanodon">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Dryosaurus"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Anabisetia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dryosauridae">
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <PLACE name="Antarctica"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="tiny" indet="1">
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <TIME value="Turonian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Dryosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kangnasaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Valdosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylopollexia" in="Parasaurolophus, Camptosaurus" silhouette="iguanodontia-robust">
+ <UNNAMED comment="small">
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <PLACE name="S. Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Bihariosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Pararhabdodon"/>
+ <CLADE name="Camptosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Camptosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Draconyx"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Styracosterna" in="Parasaurolophus" out="Camptosaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ spiked sterna
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Antarctica"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Fukuisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lurdusaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Planicoxa" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Eolambia" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Probactrosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Iguanodontoidea" in="Iguanodon, Hadrosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Hadrosauriformes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Camptosaurus sp." incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Craspedodon" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Iguanodon"/>
+ <CLINK name="Hadrosauroidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Dryomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Iguanodontoidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Camptosauridae">
+ <CLADE name="Dryosaurinae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Camptosaurinae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Iguanodontoidea">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Iguanodon"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hadrosauridae">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Horner"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Ouranosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Lambeosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> The major characteristic of these medium- to large-sized herbivores is
+a spiky thumb, possibly used for defense against predators. When
+<NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/>, the first non-<LINK content="neornithean"/>
+<LINK content="dinosaur"/> to be scientifically described, was first put
+together, its thumb-spike was
+incorrectly placed on the nose, giving it the look of a reptilian
+rhinoceros! </P>
+
+<P header="Evolution"> The animals listed here cover the transition from early,
+<LINK content="hypsilophodont"/>-like iguanodontians to the medium-sized
+<NOMEN name="Camptosaurus"/> to the archetypal <NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/> to the
+<LINK content="duck-billed dinosaurs"/>, the end result of
+<LINK content="ornithopod"/> evolution. The evolution of the iguanodontian
+thumb can be seen along this line as well: small in
+<NOMEN name="Camptosaurus"/>, at its maximum
+in <NOMEN name="Iguanodon"/>, then tiny or absent in
+<LINK content="hadrosauroids"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Lambeosaurinae" nickname="Crested Duck-Bills" silhouette="lambeosaurus">
+ <WORD key="1" content="duckbill, duck, bill, duck-bill, crest, crested, trumpet, sound, noise, vocalization, helmet, hatchet"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" key="1" content="lambeosaur"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="helmeted duck-bills"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+<CLADE name="Lambeosaurinae" in="Lambeosaurus" out="Hadrosaurus" silhouette="hadrosauroidea">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Hypacrosaurinae"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian" section="latest" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Arstanosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gadolosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pteropelyx" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Bactrosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Parasaurolophini">
+ <CGENUS name="Tsintaosaurus" q="1" silhouette="tsintaosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="parasaurolophus">
+ <CGENUS name="Charonosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Parasaurolophus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Lambeosaurini">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Hypacrosaurini"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nipponosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Amurosaurus" q="1" silhouette="corythosaurus-hypacrosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Jaxartosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Lambeosaurus" silhouette="lambeosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="corythosaurus-hypacrosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Barsboldia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Corythosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Hypacrosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+</CLADE>
+</CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Crests"> These "duck-billed" <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> bore large, hollow
+crests on their heads. The crests of <NOMEN name="Corythosaurus"/> and
+<NOMEN name="Hypacrosaurus"/> were semicircular.
+<NOMEN name="Lambeosaurus"/> crests were similar, but with a spike jutting
+out at the back of the crest. <NOMEN name="Parasaurolophus"/> had a very
+long crest pointing backwards from the head.
+<NOMEN name="Tsintaosaurus"/> was the "duck-billed unicorn", with a narrow
+spike pointing forward from above its eyes. </P>
+
+<P> The lambeosaurine crests may have been used as sexual displays. For many
+lambeosaurine genera, there are two forms known, one with a smaller
+crest, one with a larger crest. These were originally classified as different
+species, although in some cases they may just be different genders. </P>
+
+<P> In addition to visual display, the tubular crests, which connected to the
+nasal passages, may also have been used as giant trumpets, allowing the
+lambeosaurines to let out great, deep, resonant bellows across the
+prehistoric landscape. Another idea is that the crests enhanced their sense
+of smell, allowing them to detect giant predators. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Lepidosauromorpha" nickname="Lizards, Mosasaurs, Snakes, Tuataras, & Kin" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="snakes, tuataras, squamates"/>
+ <WORD key="1" essay="1" content="lizards, mosasaurs"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="lizard, mosasaur, snake"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Mosasaurus, Rikisaurus, Tylosaurus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+<CLADE name="Lepidosauromorpha" in="Lepidosauria" out="Archosauria" silhouette="lepidosauromorpha">
+ <MEANING>
+ Lepidosauria forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Acerodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Younginiformes" q="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eosuchia"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Galesphyridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Tangasauridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Younginidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Paliguanidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Eolacertilia">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Fulengidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Kuehnosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Lepidosauria" crown="1">
+ <MEANING>
+ scaly lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Rhynchocephalia" in="Sphenodon" out="Squamata">
+ <MEANING>
+ snouted heads
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sphenodontida"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Gephyrosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Diphydodontosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Planocephalosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Pleurosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sphenodontidae" content="tuataras"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Huehuecuetzpalli"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Scandensia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Squamata" crown="1">
+ <CLADE name="Iguania">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Arretosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Euposauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Iguanidae" content="iguanas, anoles, collared & horned lizards, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Agamidae" content="agamas"/>
+ <CLADE name="Chameleontidae" content="chameleons"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Scleroglossa">
+ <CLADE q="1">
+ <CLADE name="Didamidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Amphisbaenia" content="worm lizards">
+ <CLADE name="Amphisbaenidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Bipedidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Hyporhinidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Oligodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rhineuridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Trogonophididae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Gekkota">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Ardeosauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Bavarisauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eublepharidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gekkonoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Gekkonidae" content="geckos"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pygopodidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Autarchoglossa">
+ <CLADE name="Scincomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Paramacellodidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Scinciformes" status="informal">
+ <CLADE name="Scincoidea" status="informal">
+ <CLADE name="Scincidae" content="skinks"/>
+ <CLADE name="Feyliniidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cordyliformes">
+ <CLADE name="Cordylidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gerrhosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Lacertiformes">
+ <CLADE name="Xantusiidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Lacertoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Lacertidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Meyasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Teioidea">
+ <CLADE name="Gymnophthalmidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Teiidae" content="whiptails"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anguimorpha">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Diploglossa"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Paravaranidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Bainguidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anguidae" content="glass & alligator lizards"/>
+ <CLADE name="Anniellidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dorsetisauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Xenosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Platynota">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Necrosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Thecoglossa">
+ <CLADE name="Varanoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Helodermatidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Lanthanotidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Varanidae" content="monitor lizards"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pythonomorpha">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Mosasauroidea">
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Opetiosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Aigalosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dolichosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Mosasauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ophidia" content="snakes">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Serpentes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Scolecophidia" q="1">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Anomalepedidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Leptotyphlopidae" content="slender blind snakes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Typhlopidae" content="blind snakes"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Lapparentophidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Simoliophidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Booidea">
+ <CLADE name="Boidae" content="constrictors"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dinilysiidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Palaeophidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pythonidae" content="pythons"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Alethinophidia">
+ <CLADE name="Anilioidea">
+ <CLADE name="Aniliidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Loxocemidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Uropeltidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Xenopeltidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Ophiomorphus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Pachyrhachis" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Macrostomata">
+ <CLADE name="Bolyeriidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tropidophiidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Acrochordoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Acrochordidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Nigerophidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Colubroidea">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Anomalophidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Colubridae" content="water, hognose, green, rat & earth snakes, etc."/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Russelophidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Proteroglypha">
+ <CLADE name="Elapidae" content="cobras, coral snakes"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Opisthoglypha">
+ <CLADE name="Viperidae" content="vipers"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+</CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Lepidosauromorphs include all <LINK content="reptiles"/> with
+overlapping scales. Two types of lepidosauromorph remain alive today:
+<NOMEN nolink="1" name="Sphenodon"/> (tuatara) and the squamates
+(lizards and their descendants, snakes). </P>
+
+<P> During the late <LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>, there were huge, marine
+squamates known as mosasaurs. They went extinct at the end of the
+<LINK content="Cretaceous"/>, along with all non-<LINK content="neornithean"/>
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Macronaria" nickname="Nasal-Crested Sauropods" silhouette="brachiosauridae">
+ <WORD key="1" content="camarasaurs, brachiosaurs, big, huge, large, tallest, crested, biggest"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="brachiosaur, brachiosaurs, camarasaur, Cetiosauridae"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Macronaria" in="Saltasaurus" out="Diplodocus" silhouette="macronaria">
+ <MEANING>
+ large nares
+ </MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Wilson, Sereno"/>
+ <UNNAMED incertae="1" q="1">
+ <REMAINS age="juvenile" content="specimens"/>
+ <PLACE name="Germany"/>
+ <TIME value="LJ"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Abrosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Bashunosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chondrosteosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sugiyamasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Camarasauromorpha" in="Camarasaurus, Saltasaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Camarasaurus"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Camarasauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Aragosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Camarasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lourinhasaurus" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauriformes" in="Titanosaurus, Brachiosaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Titanosaurus"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="femur"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Egypt"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" q="1">
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="QM" id="F6142" content="partial cervical vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Pleurocoelus">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="England"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Ruby Ranch">
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/> <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <REMAINS content="bones from at least 4 individuals"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Astrodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Atlasaurus" silhouette="brachiosauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Austrosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Bellusaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Bothriospondylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Damalasaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eucamerotus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Ischyrosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Ornithopsis"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Pelorosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Venenosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pleurocoelus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sonorasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Brachiosauridae" silhouette="brachiosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Brachiosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Cedarosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Giraffatitan"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sauroposeidon"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Titanosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Macronaria">
+ <CGENUS name="Haplocanthosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Camarasauromorpha">
+ <CGENUS name="Camarasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauriformes">
+ <CLADE name="Brachiosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Somphospondyli" in="Saltasaurus, Euhelopus">
+ <CGENUS name="Euhelopus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Haplocanthosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Andesaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauroidea" sensu="Sanz, J. Powell, Le Loeuff, Martinez, Pereda-Suberbiola" year="1999">
+ <CGENUS name="Opisthocoelicaudia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauria" sensu="Sanz, J. Powell, Le Loeuff, Martinez, Pereda-Suberbiola" year="1999"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> The name Macronaria ("large nostrils") refers to the enlarged nasal
+openings of this group. Like all <LINK content="sauropods"/>, their nostrils
+were situated atop their head, nearly above the eyes. Macronarians
+had crests of varying sizes formed by high nasal bones. In some
+specimens, these bones were not completely preserved, leaving the skull
+looking rather low, like those of <LINK content="diplodocimorphs"/>. For this
+reason, many were once classified with them. </P>
+
+<P header='"Camarasaurs"'> Basal (non-titanosauriform) macronarians, or
+"camarasaurs", were fairly typical sauropods of small to average size.
+They had boxy skulls and spatulate teeth. Embryonic "camarasaur" material
+indicates that some laid eggs with diameters of 24 cm. </P>
+
+<P header='"Brachiosaurs"'> Most of the animals listed above as
+non-titanosaurian titanosauriforms have been included at some time in the
+family Brachiosauridae, but their exact relations to one another are
+poorly understood at this time. Among these animals are some of the
+largest land animals of all time, such as <NOMEN name="Brachiosaurus"/>,
+<NOMEN name="Giraffatitan"/>, and the new <NOMEN name="Sauroposeidon"/>.
+Some had very high nasal crests and forelimbs longer than hindlimbs. </P>
+
+<P> It was once thought that the large crest of "brachiosaurs" was a
+snorkeling device. Since then it has been shown that if a
+<NOMEN name="Brachiosaurus"/> were to be submerged at such a depth as to
+need a raised blowhole on its head, the pressure on its chest would be so
+great that its lungs would collapse. Instead, it is likely that
+"brachiosaurs", and probably all sauropods, were terrestrial. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Mammalia" nickname="Furry Milksuckers" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="mammals, multis"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="bat, bats, human, mammal, glyptodont, mammalian bats, sirenians, walruses"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Antidorcas, Bison, Giraffa, Homo, Ia, Rhinoceros, Theosodon, Zalambdalestes"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Mammalia" sensu="stricto" crown="1" silhouette="mammalia">
+ <CLADE name="Prototheria" in="Monotremata" out="Theria">
+ <MEANING>
+ before beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Monotremata" crown="1" content="duck-bill platypuses, echidnas (or spiny anteaters)">
+ <MEANING>
+ single holes
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Allotheria" q="1">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Haramiyidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Multituberculata" content='"multis"'/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Theriiformes" in="Theria" out="Monotremata">
+ <MEANING>
+ Theria forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Triconodonta">
+ <CLADE name="Holotheria">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Chronoperatidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Kuehnotheria">
+ <CLADE name="Trechnotheria">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Yangotheria"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Spalacotherioidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Symmetrodonta">
+ <MEANING>
+ symmetrical teeth
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Yinotheria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Cladotheria">
+ <MEANING>
+ branch beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dryolestoidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Amphitheriida">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Amphitheriidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Zatheria">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Arguimuridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Arguitheriidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Vincelestidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Paramura"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tribosphenida">
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Hypomylos"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Necrolestidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Aegialodontia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Theria" sensu="stricto">
+ <MEANING>
+ beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Aethomylos" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Anizorhinus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Dakotadens" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Falepterus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Kasserinotherium" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Paleomolops" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Plicatodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Potamotelses" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Russellmys" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Tetraprothomo" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Tribotherium" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Zygiocuspis" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Endotheriidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Kermackiidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Picopsidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Poppotheriidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Metatheria" content="pouched mammals" in="Marsupialia" out="Placentalia">
+ <MEANING>
+ middle beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Holoclemensia"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Deltatheridioidea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Monodelphis" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Boreometatheria" q="1" content="Asian & North American pouched mammals">
+ <MEANING>
+ boreal beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Notometatheria" content="Australasian & South American pouched mammals">
+ <MEANING>
+ southern beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Protodidelphidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Borhyaenoidea" content="Borhyaena, Thylacosmilus, etc.">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sparassodonta"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Bonabartheriidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Necrolestidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Paradectidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Simpsonitheria" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Mayulestes"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Pucadelphys"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Andinodelphys"/>
+ <CLADE name="Marsupialia" crown="1">
+ <MEANING>
+ pouches
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Didelphimorpha" content="American opossums"/>
+ <CLADE name="Paucituberculata" q="1" content="rat opossums"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Microbiotheriidae" content="monitos del monte"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Yingabalanaridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Australidelphia" content="Australasian marsupials">
+ <MEANING>
+ Australian possums
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eometatheria" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dasyuromorpha" content="marsupial mice & rats, quolls, Tasmanian wolves & devils, numbats"/>
+ <CLADE name="Notoryctidae" q="1" content="marsupial moles"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tarsipedidae" q="1" content="honey possums"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Yalkaperidontidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Syndactyla">
+ <MEANING>
+ fused fingers
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Peramelomorpha" content="bandicoots"/>
+ <CLADE name="Diprotodonta">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Diprotodon"/>'s <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <MEANING>
+ two front teeth
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Palorchestidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Thylacoleonidae" q="1" content="marsupial lions"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Wynyardiidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Vombatiformes" comment="wombats, koalas"/>
+ <CLADE name="Phalangeriformes" comment="phalangers, kangaroos, etc."/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Eutheria" in="Placentalia" out="Marsupialia">
+ <MEANING>
+ true beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Prokennalestes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Placentalia" status="informal" crown="1" content="placental mammals">
+ <MEANING>
+ placenta
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Aspanlestes" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Bulaklestes" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Beleutinus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Daulestes" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Eodesmatodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Eutrochodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Helioseus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Idiogenomys" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Kumsuperus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Neodesmostylus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Obtususdon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Sorlestes" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Telacodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Tingamarra" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Veratalpa" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Wanotherium" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Bibimalagasia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Edentata" in="Xenarthra" out="Carnivora, Ungulata, Anagalida, Archonta, Insectivora">
+ <MEANING>
+ without teeth
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Pholidota" q="1" content="pangolins or scaly anteaters"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Palaeanodonta" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Xenarthra" crown="1" content="sloths, anteaters, armadillos"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Epitheria" in="Carnivora, Ungulata, Anagalida, Archonta, Insectivora" out="Xenarthra">
+ <MEANING>
+ after beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Apatotheria" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Asioryctitheria"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Cimolestidae" incerate="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Leptictida" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Palaeoryctidae" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Pantodonta"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Pantolesta"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Taeniodonta" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Tillodonta" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Zalambdalestidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Insectivora" crown="1" content="shrews, moles, tenrecs, golden moles, hedgehogs, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ insect-eaters
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Lipotyphla"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ferae">
+ <MEANING>
+ fierce <LOW>ones</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Creodonta"/>
+ <CLADE name="Carnivoramorpha" in="Carnivora" out="Creodonta">
+ <MEANING>
+ Carnivora forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Didymictidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Carnivora" crown="1" content="dogs, bears, weasels, seals, cats, hyenas, mongooses, etc.">
+ <MEANING>meat-eaters</MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Archonta" crown="1">
+ <MEANING>
+ rulers
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Chiropteromorpha" status="informal" in="Chiroptera" out="Primates">
+ <MEANING>
+ Chiroptera forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Chiroptera" content="bats">
+ <MEANING>
+ hand wings
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dermoptera" q="1" content="colugos or flying lemurs">
+ <MEANING>
+ skin wings
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Primatomorpha" in="Primates" out="Chiroptera">
+ <MEANING>
+ Primates forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Scandentia" q="1" content="tree shrews"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Plesiadapiformes" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Primates" crown="1" content="apes, humans, lemurs, lorises, monkeys, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ primary <LOW>ones</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anagalida" crown="1">
+ <CLADE name="Macroscelidea" content="elephant shrews">
+ <MEANING>
+ large limbs
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Anagaloidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Glires" in="Lagomorpha, Rodentia">
+ <CLADE name="Duplicidentata" in="Lagomorpha" out="Rodentia">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Mimotonida"/>
+ <CLADE name="Lagomorpha" crown="1" content="rabbits, hares, pikas">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Lagus"/> <LOW>(rabbit)</LOW> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Simplicidentata" in="Rodentia" out="Lagomorpha">
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Eurymylus"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Matutinia"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Rhombomylus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rodentomorpha">
+ <MEANING>
+ Rodentia forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Helomys"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rodentiformes">
+ <MEANING>
+ Rodentia forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Tribosphenomys"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rodentia" crown="1" content="rodents"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ungulatamorpha" in="Ungulata" out="Carnivora, Archonta, Anagalida, Insectivora">
+ <MEANING>
+ Ungulata forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Aspanlestes"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Avitotherium"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Alostera"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Zenlestidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ungulata" sensu="lato"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dinocerata" q="1" content="Uintatherium, etc."/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Oxyclaenidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ungulata" crown="1" content="hoofed mammals, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ hooves
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Arctocyonidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Arctostylopidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Paroxyclaenidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Tricuspiodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tubulidentata" content="aardvarks">
+ <MEANING>
+ tubular teeth
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Mioclaenidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Periptychidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Meridiungulata" content="extinct South American ungulates">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Didolodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Astrapotheria" q="1" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Litopterna" content="Macrauchenia, etc." extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE q="1">
+ <CLADE name="Pyrotheria" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Xenungulata"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Notoungulata">
+ <MEANING>
+ southern ungulates
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Notoprongonia"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Toxodontia"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Typotheria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Mesaxonia">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Altungulata"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Paenungulata" q="1"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Penungulata" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Meniscotheriidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Phenacodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Embrithopoda" content="large, double-horned herbivores"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Hyracoidea" q="1" content="hyraxes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Perissodactyla" content="horses, rhinos, tapirs, brontotheriids, chalicotheriids, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ odd <LOW>number of</LOW> fingers
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Loxolophidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Phenacolophidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tethytheria" in="Sirenia, Elephantidae">
+ <MEANING>
+ Tethys <LOW>Sea</LOW> beasts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Sirenia" content="manatees, dugongs, sea cows">
+ <MEANING>
+ sirens <LOW>(alluring marine creatures of Greek mythology)</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Desmostylia" content="hippo-like amphibious ungulates">
+ <MEANING>
+ linked beam
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Proboscidea" content="elephants, mammoths, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ probosces
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Paraxonia">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Triisodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Artiodactyla" crown="1" content="pigs, hippos, deer, giraffes, antelope, cattle, goats, sheep, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ even<LOW> number of</LOW> fingers
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cete" in="Cetacea" out="Artiodactyla">
+ <MEANING>
+ whales
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Hapalodectidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Mesonychidae">
+ <CLADE name="Cetacea" content="whales" sensu="lato">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Protocetidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Remingtonocetidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Basilosauridae" content="serpent whales">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Zeuglodontidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Autoceta" content="modern whales">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Cetacea" crown="1" sensu="stricto"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Eutheria">
+ <CLADE name="Erinaceomorpha" q="1" content="hedgehogs"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Atlantogenata">
+ <CLADE name="Xenarthra"/>
+ <CLADE name="Afrotheria">
+ <MEANING>African beasts</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Afrosoricida"" content="tenrecs, golden moles, etc.">
+ <MEANING>African shrews</MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Macroscelidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pseudungulata">
+ <CLADE name="Tubulidentata"/>
+ <CLADE name="Paenungulata">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Uranotheria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hyracoidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tethytheria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Glires"/>
+ <CLADE name="Euarchonta">
+ <CLADE name="Dermoptera" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Primatomorpha"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Laurasiatheria">
+ <MEANING>Laurasian beasts</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Eulipotyphla" content="shrews & moles"/>
+ <CLADE name="Scrotifera">
+ <CLADE name="Chiroptera"/>
+ <CLADE name="Fereuungulata">
+ <CLADE name="Zooamata">
+ <MEANING>animal friends</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Carnivora"/>
+ <CLADE name="Perissodactyla"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pholidota"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Artiodactyla">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Cetartiodactyla"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Paraxonia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tylopoda" content="camels, llamas, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Suoidea" content="pigs, peccaries"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ruminantia" content="deer, giraffes, antelope, cattle, goats, sheep, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Whippomorpha">
+ <MEANING>wh<LOW>ale-h</LOW>ippo forms</MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Hippopotamoidea" content="hippopotami, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Cetacea" sensu="lato"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Mammals originated around the same time as the
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>, but remained in their shadow throughout the
+<LINK content="Mesozoic"/>. After the K/T extinction, they diversified to
+fit the niches that the dinosaurs left empty, as well as many other niches.
+Go us! Dinosaurs may be cool, but who's on top of the food chain now, eh?
+I have to go eat some <LINK content="chicken"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Neoceratosauria" nickname="Primitive Predators With Big Teeth">
+ <WORD key="1" content="predator, carnotaur, horned, horns, carnivore, carnivorous, meat"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Neoceratosauria" in="Ceratosaurus" out="Coelophysis" silhouette="neoceratosauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ new ceratosaurs
+ </MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Novas" year="1991"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ceratosauroidea" sensu="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Dandakosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Genusaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sarcosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Ceratosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Abelisauroidea" in="Carnotaurus" out="Ceratosaurus, Elaphrosaurus" silhouette="abelisauroidea">
+ <AUTHOR name="Bonaparte" year="1991"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Bonaparte, Novas" year="1985"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Compsosuchus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dryptosauroides" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Genyodectes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Jubbulpuria" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithomimoides" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ilokelesia" silhouette="abeliosauroidea-small"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Laevisuchus" silhouette="abelisauroidea-small"/>
+ <CLADE name="Abelisauria" in="Abelisaurus, Noasaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Abelisaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Noasauridae" silhouette="abelisauroidea-small">
+ <CGENUS name="Masiakasaurus" silhouette="neotheropoda"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ligabueino" ailhouette="noasaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Noasaurus" silhouette="noasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Velocisaurus" silhouette="abelisauroidea-small"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Abelisauridae" in="Abelisaurus, Carnotaurus, Indosaurus, Indosuchus, Xenotarsosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Bonaparte, Novas" year="1985"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Novas" year="1997"/>
+ <UNNAMED><REMAINS content="skull"/><PLACE name="Niger"/><TIME value="Cenomanian"/></UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Betasuchus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Xenotarsosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tarascosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Indosuchus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Abelisaurinae" in="Abelisaurus" out="Carnotaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Bonaparte, Novas" year="1985"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Abelisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Carnotaurinae" in="Carnotaurus" out="Abelisaurus" silhouette="carnotaurinae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Majungasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Aucasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Carnotaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Indosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Majungatholus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Abelisauroidea">
+ <CLADE name="Carcharodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Abelisauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> These were mostly medium-large predators which displayed some primitive
+characteristics, such as four manual digits, one of which was lost in
+the more "advanced" <LINK content="tetanurans"/>, the other great branch of
+<LINK content="theropods"/>. Although never quite as diverse (or numerous) as the
+tetanurans, neoceratosaurs had some variety. Most were medium-large
+predators, but there were also tiny ones like
+<NOMEN name="Ligabueino"/> and <NOMEN name="Velocisaurus"/>.
+<NOMEN name="Noasaurus"/> seems to have had a large "sickle claw" on
+each foot, like the tetanuran <LINK content="troodontids"/> and
+<LINK content="deinonychosaurs"/>. Many neoceratosaurs had ornate horns on
+their heads, like <NOMEN name="Ceratosaurus"/> and the carnotaurines. </P>
+
+<P> Neoceratosaurs were generally robust with "tall" heads. Some had a small
+opening in front of the antorbital fenestra, similar but probably
+convergent to the maxillary fenestra of tetanurans. Neoceratosaurs had six
+or seven fused sacral vertebrae, more than other theropods. </P>
+
+<P> During the <LINK content="Cretaceous"/>, neoceratosaurs inhabited the southern, or Gondwanan,
+continents. If, as a few suspect, the mighty <LINK content="carcharodontosaurines"/>
+are abelisauroids, they may have even been the dominant Gondwanan predators
+(although it seems more likely that they are
+<LINK content="allosauroids"/>). Neoceratosaurs persisted to the end of the
+<LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Neornithes" nickname="Modern Birds" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="bird, modern, classification, cladogram, evolution, feather, flight, origin, Diatryma"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="chicken, modern bird, modern birds, modern flying birds, modern-day birds, neornithean birds, ostriches, penguins, sparrow, songbird, trochilid, trochilids, turkey, phorusrhacids"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Aegotheles, Apteryx, Aquila, Aratinga, Casuarius, Ceratogymna, Gastornis, Dinornis, Dromaius, Icterus, Opisthocomo, Passer, Pavo, Pelagornis, Phorusrhacus, Sagittarius, Selasphorus, Scaniornis, Struthio, Teratornis, Titanis, Trochilis, Tyto"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Neornithes" crown="1" silhouette="neornithes">
+ <MEANING>
+ new birds
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Aves" sensu="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <CLADE name="Palaeognathae" in="Ratitae" out="Passeriformes">
+ <MEANING>
+ old jaws
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Palaeognathia"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eoaves"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Eremopezus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Remiornis"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Stromeria"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Eleutherornithidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tinamiformes" content="tinamous">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Tinamus" nolink="1"/> (tinamou) forms
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ratitae" in="Apteryx, Struthio">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ratiti"/>
+ <CLADE name="Apteryges" in="Apteryx" out="Struthio">
+ <CLADE name="Apterygiformes" content="kiwis"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dinornithiformes" q="1" content="moa"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Dromornithiformes" q="1" content="mihirung"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Struthiones" in="Struthio" out="Apteryx">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Aepyornithiformes" content="elephant birds"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Casuariiformes" content="cassowaries, emus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rheiformes" content="rheas"/>
+ <CLADE name="Struthioniformes" content="ostriches"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Neognathae" in="Passeriformes" out="Ratitae">
+ <MEANING>
+ new jaws
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Neognathia"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Neoaves"/>
+ <CLADE name="Galloanserae">
+ <CLADE name="Anseriformes" q="1" content="ducks, geese, swans, screamers, Presbyornis, Gastornis?"/>
+ <CLADE name="Galliformes" q="1" content="turkeys, grouse, quails, pheasants, peafowl, etc."/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Mesitornithidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ardeidae" q="1" content="herons"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eurypygoidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Otides"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rhynchoceti" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gruimorphae">
+ <CLADE name="Gruiformes" content="cranes, rails, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Podicepiformes" q="1" content="grebes"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Charadriomorphae">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Graculavidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ciconiimorphae">
+ <CLADE name="Phoenicopteriformes" content="flamingos"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ciconiiformes" content="storks, spoonbills?, New World vultures?, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pelecaniformes" content="pelicans, frigate birds, gannets, boobies, cormorants, anhingas, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Procellariformes" content="albatrosses, petrels, shearwaters, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Gaviiformes" content="loons"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sphenisciformes" content="penguins"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Burnithidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Charadriiformes">
+ <CLADE status="informal" name="Charadriida" content="avocets, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Phalaropodidae" q="1" content="phalaropes"/>
+ <CLADE name="Scolopacida" status="informal" content="jacanas, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Laridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sternidae" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Stercorariidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dromadidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Turnicidae" content="button quails"/>
+ <CLADE q="1">
+ <CLADE name="Pteroclidiformes"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Columbiformes" content="pigeons, doves, sandgrouse, dodo"/>
+ <CLADE name="Psittaciformes" content="cockatoos, parrots"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cariamae" content="phorusrhacids, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Falconiformes" content="falcons, caracaras" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Opisthocomiformes" q="1" content="hoatzins, Foro?"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cuculiformes" q="1" content="cuckoos, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pandionidae" q="1" content="ospreys"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sagittariidae" q="1" comment="secretary birds"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Musophagiformes" q="1" content="turacos, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Accipitriformes" q="1" content="hawks, eagles, Old World vultures, Horusornis?"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anomalogonatae">
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Zygodactylus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Coliiformes" content="mousebirds"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Sandcoleiformes"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Strigiformes" content="owls"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Apodiformes" content="swifts, hummingbirds"/>
+ <CLADE name="Caprimulgiformes" content="goatsuckers"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Coraciiformes" content="rollers, courols, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Trogoniformes" content="trogons, todies, motmots, bee eaters, kingfishers, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Bucerotimorphae">
+ <CLADE name="Bucerotiformes" content="hornbills, hoopoes, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Piciformes" content="barbets, toucans, woodpeckers, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Passeriformes" content="songbirds, etc."/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> This group contains all modern, toothless <LINK content="birds"/>.
+They are divided into paleognathans (ratites and tinamous) and neognathans
+(all other modern birds). Beyond that, classification gets tricky --
+there are about as many schemes as there are scientists studying avian
+phylogeny. Neornithean systematics is highly volatile at the moment, so
+don't be surprised if you see changes here. </P>
+
+<P header="Survivors"> When all the other <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> died
+out at the end of the <LINK content="Cretaceous Period"/>, neornithean
+birds made an attempt to fill the empty niches left by the large predatory
+<LINK content="theropods"/>. In South America, large, ground-dwelling,
+carnivorous phorusrhacids evolved and lasted until fairly recently. But
+today, with few exceptions, birds are aerial, not terrestrial. </P>
+
+<P> In the skies, however, these last descendants of the mighty dinosaurs
+still reign supreme. They beat out <LINK content="pterosaurs"/> in the
+<LINK content="Mesozoic"/> (in the smaller niches) and today they keep
+<LINK content="mammalian bats"/> from flying during the day. There are over
+twice as many living species of bird as living species of mammal. They are
+the last vestige of the dinosaurs' dominion. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ornithischia" nickname='Beaked, "Bird-Hipped" Plant-Eaters'>
+ <WORD key="1" content="bird-hipped, bird, hipped, hips, pelvis, pelves, herbivorous, herbivores, plant, plant-eating, vegetarian, veggie, vegetable"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="genasaurian ornithischian, fabrosaurid"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithischia" in="Triceratops" out="Neornithes" silhouette="ornithischia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Seeley" year="1888"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Padian, May" year="1993"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ bird<LOW>-like</LOW> ischia
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Predentata"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Orthopoda"/>
+ <UNNAMED comment="primitive">
+ <TIME value="Carnian"/>
+ <TIME value="Norian"/>
+ <PLACE name="New Mexico"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large, primitive">
+ <PLACE name="S. Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Alocodon"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Lucianosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Revueltosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Technosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Tecovasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Trimucrodon"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Xiaosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Galtonia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pekinosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pisanosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED incertae="1" cf="Echinodon">
+ <TIME value="Kimmeridgian" section="late"/>
+ <PLACE name="Colorado"/>
+ <REMAINS content="limb elements, etc."/>
+ <REMAINS content="right dentary, left maxilla" q="1"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Agilisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Fabrosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gongbusaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lesothosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Genasauria" in="Triceratops, Ankylosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1986"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Orbitoscuta"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="neck vertebra"/>
+ <TIME value="Coniacian"/>
+ <TIME value="Santonian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ <TIME value="Valanginian"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Echinodon"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Jeholosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Taveirosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thecospondylus" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Thyreophora"/>
+ <CLADE name="Cerapoda" in="Triceratops, Iguanodon" silhouette="cerapoda">
+ <MEANING>
+ Cera<LOW>topsia and Ornitho</LOW>poda
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Neornithischia"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Notoceratops"/>
+ <CLINK name="Heterodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLINK name="Ornithopoda"/>
+ <CLADE name="Marginocephalia" in="Triceratops, Pachycephalosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ margin heads
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Xuanhuasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stenopelix"/>
+ <CLINK name="Pachycephalosauria"/>
+ <CLINK name="Ceratopsia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Genasauria">
+ <CLADE name="Thyreophora">
+ <CGENUS name="Scutellosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Thyreophoroidea">
+ <CGENUS name="Scelidosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ankylosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Stegosauria" comment="definition altered">
+ <CGENUS name="Emausaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Huayangosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Stegosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cerapoda">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithopoda"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Heterodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Marginocephalia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Genasauria" comment="definition altered">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithopoda"/>
+ <CLADE name="Orbitoscuta" in="Triceratops, Ankylosaurus">
+ <CLADE name="Thyreophora"/>
+ <CLADE name="Marginocephalia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithischia">
+ <CGENUS name="Pisanosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Genasauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Fabrosauridae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Galton" year="1972"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Peng" year="1997"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Lesothosauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Fabrosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Agilisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gongbusaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Cerapoda">
+ <CLADE name="Marginocephalia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithopoda">
+ <CLADE name="Heterodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Euornithopoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> <ILLO name="ornithischian_pelvis"/> Ornithischia includes the
+"bird-hipped" <LINK content="dinosaurs"/>, so called because the pubis
+seems to run backwards and parallel to the ischium as
+in <LINK content="birds"/> (in actuality, a process on the pubis grew
+backwards). Some dislike this name since certain
+<LINK content="saurischian dinosaurs"/> had more bird-like hips (especially
+birds themselves!). They prefer the name Predentata, which refers to the
+predentary bone in the front of the lower jaw. This bone is unique to
+these dinosaurs. </P>
+
+<P> Apart from certain <LINK content="theropods"/>, ornithischians were the only
+beaked dinosaurs. They were all herbivorous (save for a few possible
+omnivores, like <LINK content="heterodontosaurids"/>), and included a very wide
+variety of forms: <LINK content="armored tanks"/>,
+<LINK content="nimble runners & duck-bills"/>,
+<LINK content="lithe tuskers"/>, <LINK content="stone-headed chargers"/>, and
+<LINK content="the horned & frilled dinosaurs"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Origin"> The earliest ornithischians were small, bipedal plant eaters, like
+<NOMEN name="Pisanosaurus"/> and <NOMEN name="Lesothosaurus"/>. Most later
+ornithischian lineages became quadrupedal as they evolved into bigger forms,
+although some, like the <LINK content="ornithopods"/> and
+<LINK content="pachycephalosaurs"/>, retained at least some degree of
+bipedality throughout. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ornithodira" nickname='"Bird Necks" - Dinosaurs & Pterosaurs'>
+ <WORD key="1" content="lagosuchian, thecodontian, thecodont, origin, first, evolution, ancestors"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="lagosuchian, lagosuchians"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithodira" in="Neornithes, Pterodactylus, Lagosuchus, Herrerasaurus, Triceratops, Saltasaurus" silhouette="ornithosuchia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ bird necks
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Avipes" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Scleromochlus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pterosauromorpha" in="Pterodactylus" out="Neornithes" silhouette="pterosauromorpha">
+ <MEANING>
+ Pterosauria forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Sharovipteryx" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Pterosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauromorpha" in="Neornithes" out="Pterodactylus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1991"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ Dinosauria forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Lagerpeton"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dinosauriformes" in="Neornithes, Lagosuchus">
+ <MEANING>
+ Dinosauria forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Lagosuchus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Marasuchus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pseudolagosuchus"/>
+ <CLINK name="Dinosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Archosauromorpha"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Classification"> Ornithodira ("bird necks") is divided into two major sections.
+Dinosauromorpha includes <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> and their early
+ancestors, the "lagosuchians". These ancestors were very small, about
+1.5 to 3.5 feet long. They were probably carnivorous or insectivorous. </P>
+
+<P> The other group, Pterosauromorpha, includes <LINK content="Pterosauria"/>,
+the so-called "flying <LINK content="reptiles"/>" (although
+<LINK content="birds"/> are also considered reptiles under the cladistic
+system). There are two possible non-pterosaurian pterosauromorphs:
+<NOMEN name="Sharovipteryx"/>, an animal which may have
+glided on membranes supported by its hindlimbs; and
+<NOMEN name="Scleromochlus"/>, a small, poorly understood creature. </P>
+
+<P> Some do not consider pterosaurs to be close relatives of dinosaurs:
+<REFER page="Archosauromorpha"/><REFER page="http://home.stlnet.com/~azero/Pterosaur_Homepage.htm" title="The Pterosaur Home Page"/></P>
+
+<P header="Warm-Blooded, Cold-Blooded, or Both?"> All ornithodirans walked
+with a fully upright stance, like that of most <LINK content="mammals"/>.
+The group is named for the S-shaped neck found in most members. </P>
+
+<P> The only living ornithodirans, birds, are highly endothermic (or
+"warm-blooded"), but there is still debate as to the metabolic rate of
+extinct ornithodirans. The idea that they were endothermic has gained
+much acceptance in recent times, but some still maintain that they were
+ectothermic (or "cold-blooded"). Others think that they may have had
+intermediate metabolisms, or alternate types of physiology. But everyone
+agrees that the upright stance of ornithodirans indicates a high level
+of activity, regardless of metabolic rate. </P>
+
+<P> It has been suggested that the fur-like integument seen in some pterosaur
+fossils and the feathers seen in some dinosaurs (fossil and living) might be
+homologous. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ornithomimosauria" nickname="Ostrich-Mimicking Speed Racers">
+ <WORD key="1" content="ostrich, bird, mimic, fast, fastest, runner, cursorial, speed, velocity"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="ostrich mimic, fast runners"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimosauria" in="Ornithomimus, Pelecanimimus" silhouette="ornithomimosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Barsbold" year="1976"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="non" name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Ornithomimus"/> lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED q="1" indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="claw"/>
+ <REMAINS q="1" content="pubis"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Pelecanimimus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimidae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Marsh" year="1890"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="non" name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Smith, Galton" year="1990"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Marsh" year="1890"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Georgia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Montana"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ <REMAINS content="12 skeletons (with gastroliths)"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Archaeornithomimus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Deinocheirus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Garudimimus" silhouette="garudimimus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Orcomimus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Sanchusaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomiminae">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Marsh" year="1890"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gallimimus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Anserimimus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithomimini">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Marsh" year="1890"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dromiceiomimus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithomimus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Struthiomimus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Coelurosauria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> These <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> are commonly known as the
+"ostrich mimics" or "ostrich dinosaurs" (although, technically,
+<LINK content="ostriches"/> <B>are</B> dinosaurs -- and if you think about
+it, isn't it ostriches who are ornithomimosaur mimics?). They were possibly
+the fastest of dinosaurs, with conjectured running speeds of 40-50 1.
+They all had very large eyes, like their possible relatives the
+<LINK content="troodontids"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Physical Characteristics"> A peculiar feature of the ornithomimoids is the toothless, beaked mouth.
+This may indicate that they were one of the few groups of
+non-<LINK content="neornithean"/> <LINK content="theropods"/> to abandon a
+predatory lifestyle, possibly assuming an herbivorous or omnivorous mode of
+life similar to that of modern-day ostriches. Early ornithomimosaurs such as
+<NOMEN name="Pelecanimimus"/> still had teeth,
+although they were quite small. </P>
+
+<P> Ornithomimoids were all fairly similar. They had lost the first, inner
+toe, a dewclaw in most theropods. The ornithomimids are especially difficult
+to distinguish from each other, and for this reason some feel that they
+should all be lumped into one genus, <NOMEN name="Ornithomimus"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Size"> Ornithomimosaurs were fairly similar in size, from the most primitive ones
+at 2 meters long to the advanced ones at 3.5-4m. The exception is the giant
+ornithomimoid <NOMEN name="Deinocheirus"/> </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ornithopoda" nickname="From Dinosaurian Gazelles to Bulky Duck-Bills">
+ <WORD key="1" content="hypsilophodontian"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="nimble runners & duck-bills"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithopoda" in="Iguanodon" out="Triceratops" silhouette="ornithopoda">
+ <MEANING>
+ bird feet
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="large">
+ <REMAINS content="femur"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ <TIME value="Valanginian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Kota" q="1">
+ <TIME value="EJ"/> <TIME value="MJ"/>
+ <PLACE name="India"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Texas"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="with nests">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Texas"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <REMAINS content="partial skeleton"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Spain"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED content="small Tetori">
+ <REMAINS content="partial skull"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Ethiopia"/>
+ <TIME value="Tithonian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Anoplosaurus tanyspondylus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Atlascopcosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Fulgurotherium"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Leaellynasaura"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Nanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Notohypsilophodon"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Phyllodon"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Qantassaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" q="1" name="Sanpasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Siluosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Tichosteus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Yandusaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Bugenasaura"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thescelosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Zephyrosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Orodromeus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Zephyrosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Othnieliidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Yandusaurus multidens"/>
+ <CLADE name="Othnieliinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Drinker"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Othnielia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Euornithopoda" in="Iguanodon, Hypsilophodon">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ true ornithopods
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Parksosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hypsilophodontia" in="Hypsilophodon" out="Iguanodon">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Hypsilophodontidae" sensu="Sues" year="1997"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Hypsilophodon"/>'s <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Hypsilophodon"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Iguanodontia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithopoda">
+ <CLINK name="Heterodontosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Euornithopoda">
+ <CLADE name="Iguanodontia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hypsilophodontia">
+ <CGENUS name="Bugenasaura"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thescelosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Hypsilophodontoidea">
+ <CLADE name="Hypsilophodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Othnieliidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Zephyrosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="History of Classification"> This group has at various times included nearly all bipedal
+<LINK content="ornithischians"/>. By now many forms once included here have
+been recognized as primitive members of other largely quadrupedal groups
+(<NOMEN name="Scutellosaurus"/>, <NOMEN name="Psittacosaurus"/>),
+creatures too primitive to belong to any major ornithischian clade
+(<NOMEN name="Pisanosaurus"/>, <NOMEN name="Lesothosaurus"/>),
+or members of their own group (<LINK content="pachycephalosaurs"/>).
+Ornithopoda still includes "hypsilophodonts" and
+<LINK content="iguanodonts"/> (including <LINK content="hadrosaurids"/>,
+or duck-billed dinosaurs), and possibly <LINK content="heterodontosaurids"/>
+as well. </P>
+
+<P> It was once thought that the animals listed on this page formed a clade:
+Hypsilophodontia, sister clade of <LINK content="Iguanodontia"/>. But newer
+studies indicate that this group was paraphyletic. The only definite
+hypsilophodont is <NOMEN name="Hypsilophodon"/> itself. </P>
+
+<P header="Niche"> The animals on this page were small or tiny bipedal runners which may
+have lived lifestyles similar to those of such modern-day
+<LINK content="mammals"/> as deer, gazelles, and kangaroos. From creatures
+such as these came the larger, semi-quadrupedal iguanodonts. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Ornithurae" nickname="Advanced Birds" silhouette="ambiortimorphae">
+ <WORD key="1" content="bird, toothed, teeth, origin, evolution, classification, cladogram"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="ichthyornithid, ornithuran bird"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithurae" in="Neornithes, Hesperornis" silhouette="pygostylia">
+ <MEANING>
+ bird tails
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLINK name="Hesperornithiformes"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="ambiortimorphae">
+ <CGENUS name="Apsaravis"/>
+ <CLADE name="Carinatae" in="Neornithes, Ichthyornis">
+ <UNNAMED incertae="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="nearly complete skeleton"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE name="Ichthyornithiformes">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Apatornithiformes" q="1"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Ichthyornis"/> forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="N. America"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Apatornis" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ichthyornis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Limenavis"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Lithornithiformes" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Neornithes"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Ornithurans include modern birds (<LINK content="neornitheans"/>) and
+their relatives. Except for neornitheans, ornithurans retained small
+teeth in their jaws, except at the front of the upper jaw (premaxilla). </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Oviraptorosauria" nickname="Toothless Weirdos & Little Sprinters" silhouette="oviraptoridae-crested">
+ <WORD key="1" content="egg, eggs, nest, nests"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="toothless weirdos"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Oviraptorosauria" in="Oviraptor, Chirostenotes" silhouette="oviraptorosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Barsbold" year="1976"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Padian, Hutchinson, Holtz" year="1998"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Oviraptor"/> lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Caenagnathidae" sensu="Paul" year="1988"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Caenagnathoidea"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Oviraptoroidea"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nomingia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Caenagnathidae" in="Chirostenotes" out="Oviraptor">
+ <UNNAMED comment="large">
+ <TIME section="late" value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="S. Dakota"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Elmisauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Caenagnathasia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Caenagnathinae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Elmisaurinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chirostenotes"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elmisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Oviraptoridae" in="Oviraptor" out="Chirostenotes">
+ <UNNAMED cf="Oviraptor">
+ <REMAINS content="2 postcrania with nests of eggs (with embryos), skull"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="3 skeletons"/>
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Citipati" silhouette="oviraptoridae-crested"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Conchoraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ingenia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Khaan"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Oviraptor" silhouette="oviraptoridae-crested"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Classification and Characteristics"> This group includes the oviraptorids and the caenagnathids. The latter
+are a somewhat poorly known group, known mainly by hands and feet, which
+are fairly <LINK content="bird"/>-like. </P>
+
+<P> Oviraptorids were a very peculiar group of <LINK content="theropods"/>.
+Their mouths were entirely toothless, forming beaks. They were sometimes
+classified with the <LINK content="ornithomimids"/>, another group of
+toothless theropods. However, they lack the arctometatarsalian foot of
+the ornithomimids and other <LINK content="arctometatarsalian"/>
+theropods. </P>
+
+<P header="A Devoted Mother"> One oviraptorid specimen was found huddled atop a nest of its own eggs,
+its wing-like arms spread over them. Apparently it was protecting its brood
+when a sand avalanche buried and killed it. (The head of the
+specimen is missing, so it is not certain which type of oviraptorid it is,
+although it may well be <NOMEN name="Oviraptor"/>.) </P>
+
+<P header="The End"> It is not certain whether oviraptorosaurs made it to the very end of
+the <LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>. There is no evidence of them from very
+late <LINK content="Maastrichtian"/> sediments, so they may have died out
+right before the K/T Extinction. But some dinosaur groups are only known to
+have died out in the K/T Extinction because their teeth have been found from
+that time. Since oviraptorosaurs had no teeth, and teeth preserve better than
+other remains, they may have made it to the end but not left any evidence
+that we have yet found. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Pachycephalosauria" nickname="Bone-Heads">
+ <WORD key="1" content="bone, butt, bone-headed, butt-headed, head, heads, headed, ram, ramming"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="stone-headed chargers"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Pachycephalosauria" in="Pachycephalosaurus" out="Triceratops" silhouette="pachycephalosauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Pachycephalosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <PLACE name="India"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Yaverlandia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Wannanosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Goyocephalia" in="Goyocephale, Pachycephalosaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Goyocephale"/>'s <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Goyocephale"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Micropachycephalosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Homalocephaloidea" in="Homalocephale, Pachycephalosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Homalocephale"/>
+ <CLINK name="Pachycephalosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> This was an odd group of <LINK content="ornithischians"/>, characterized by an
+extremely thick skull roof, often lined with small bumps and spikes. The
+most commonly accepted explanation for these thick "bone-heads" is that
+they were used to butt heads in mating displays similar to those of
+bighorn sheep. </P>
+
+<P header="History of Classification"> Pachycephalosaurs were once classified as <LINK content="ornithopods"/>,
+mainly because of their bipedal stance. But they seem to be more closely
+related to the <LINK content="ceratopsians"/>, due to similarities such
+as a ridge along the back of the skull, which evolved into a frill among
+the ceratopsians. </P>
+
+<P> The genera listed here were the "flat-headed" pachycephalosaurs. They
+were sometimes grouped into the family Homalocephalidae, although this is
+probably paraphyletic. </P>
+
+<P header="Location"> Pachycephalosaurs, known only from the northern hemisphere
+(with few possible exceptions), are fairly
+rare, leading some to theorize that they may have inhabited environments
+that were not conducive to fossilization, such as mountains. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Pachycephalosauridae" nickname="Dome-Heads">
+ <WORD key="1" content="bone, butt, dome, dome-headed, head, heads, headed, ram, sheep"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Pachycephalosauridae" silhouette="pachycephalosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Stegoceras"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pachycephalosaurinae">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gravitholus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Prenocephale"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tylocephale"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pachycephalosaurini">
+ <UNNAMED comment="high-domed">
+ <TIME section="middle-late" value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Alberta"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Microcephale" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pachycephalosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stygimoloch" silhouette="stygimoloch"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Pachycephalosaurids were the "dome-headed" pachycephalosaurs. Their skull
+roofs were immensely thickened to create a large dome of solid bone on the
+top of their skulls. The dome was adorned by bumps and spikes, which grew
+quite long in <NOMEN name="Stygimoloch"/>. The spine was strengthened,
+possibly for head-on butting. </P>
+
+<P> <NOMEN name="Pachycephalosaurus"/>, at around 25 feet in length, was
+by far the giant of the group. Most other species were less than 10 feet
+long. <NOMEN name="Microcephale"/> was one of the smallest
+non-<LINK content="avian"/> dinosaurs. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Pterodactyloidea" nickname='"Pterodactyls" - Advanced Fliers'>
+ <WORD key="1" content="pterodactyl, ptero, pterodactyls, flying, flight, soaring, flew, wing"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Pterodactyloidea" silhouette="pterodactyloidea">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1"><PLACE name="Niger"/><TIME value="Aptian"/><REMAINS content="phalanx of digit IV"/></UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1" comment="large">
+ <TIME value="Kimmeridgian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="right manual phalanx II"/>
+ <!--WINGSPAN value="3.5"/-->
+ <!--WINGSPAN value="5"/-->
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Dermodactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Eosipterus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Herbstosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Kepodactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Mesadactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Wyomingopteryx"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Nyctosaurus" silhouette="pterodactyloidea-crested"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithocheiroidea">
+ <CLADE name="Ornithocheiridae" silhouette="pterodactyloidea-curved">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Morocco"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="shoulder girdle, vertebra, mandible section"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Araripedactylus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Araripesaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Brasileodactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithocheirus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Santanadactylus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pteranodontoidea" silhouette="pteranodontoidea">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Morocco"/>
+ <REMAINS content="jaw fragments"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="partial pelvis, sacral centra, sacral rib"/>
+ <REMAINS q="1" content="toothed jaw fragment"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Bogolubovia" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithostoma"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Istiodactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pteranodon" silhouette="pteranodon"/>
+ <CLADE name="Anhangueridae" silhouette="anhangueridae">
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <TIME value="K"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="front of upper jaw without tip"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Cearadactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Coloborhynchus clavirostris"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Criorhynchus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Siroccopteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tropeognathus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Anhanguerinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Anhanguera" silhouette="anhanguera"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Arthurdactylus" silhouette="pterodactyloidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cycnorhamphus" silhouette="pterodactyloidea-crested"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Normannognathus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pterodactylidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Germanodactylidae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Germanodactylus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Haopterus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pterodactylus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ctenochasmatidae" silhouette="ctenochasmatidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Ctenochasma" silhouette="pterodactyloidea-curved"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Huanhepterus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pterodaustro" silhouette="pterodaustro"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gnathosaurinae" status="informal" silhouette="gnathosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Gnathosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Plataleorhynchus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dsungaripteridae" silhouette="dsungaripteridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Dsungaripterus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Noripterus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Phobetor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Puntanipterus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Azhdarchoidea" silhouette="azhdarchoidea">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Morocco"/>
+ <REMAINS content="jaw fragments"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Tapejara" silhouette="tapejara"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Tupuxuara" silhouette="tupuxuara"/>
+ <CLADE name="Azhdarchidae">
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Morocco"/>
+ <REMAINS content="jaw fragments"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Solana giant">
+ <PLACE name="Spain"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="specimen with skin impressions"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="proximal end of ulna"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Arambourgiania"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Azhdarcho"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Bennettazhia" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Diopocephalus" silhouette="azhdarchidae-small"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Doratorhynchus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Montanazhdarcho"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Quetzalcoatlus" silhouette="quetzalcoatlus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Zhejiangopterus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Pterodactyloidea">
+ <CLADE name="Scalmognatha" status="informal">
+ <CGENUS name="Germanodactylus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pteranodon"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Nyctosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dsungaripteridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tapejaridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Tapejara"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tupuxuara"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Euthygnatha" status="informal">
+ <CGENUS name="Germanodactylus rhamphastinus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cycnorhamphus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithodesmus latidens"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ornithocheiroidea">
+ <CGENUS name="Ornithocheirus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Anhangueridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pterodactylus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pterodaustro"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ctenochasmatidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Ctenochasma"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gnathosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Tanydiroptera" status="informal">
+ <CGENUS name="Diopocephalus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Doratorhynchus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Huanhepterus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Azhdarchidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Pterodactyloids included the largest flying animals of all time. Giants
+like <NOMEN name="Quetzalcoatlus"/> could grow to have wingspans over 30
+feet, possibly weighing over 500 pounds. </P>
+
+<P header="Rise and Fall"> These short-tailed <LINK
+content="pterosaurs"/> came in a wide
+variety of forms, from the forceps-beaked <NOMEN name="Dsungaripterus"/> to
+the sieve-toothed <NOMEN name="Pterodaustro"/> to the toothless
+<NOMEN name="Pteranodon"/>. Several had enormous crests atop their heads. </P>
+
+<P> Pterodactyloid diversity declined throughout the
+<LINK content="Late Cretaceous"/>. By the end there were only a few giant
+forms, the smaller niches having all been taken over by
+<LINK content="birds"/>. This last remnant went extinct at the end of the
+<LINK content="Cretaceous"/>, as did all <LINK content="ornithodirans"/>
+save for <LINK content="neornithean birds"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Pterosauria" nickname="Flying Reptiles">
+ <WORD key="1" content="pterodactyl, flying, reptile, wing, flight"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Pterosauria" in="Anurognathus, Campylognathoides, Dimorphodon, Dorygnathus, Eudimorphodon, Peteinosaurus, Preondactylus, Pterodactylus, Rhamphorhynchus, Scaphognathus" silhouette="pterosauria">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Sereno" year="1991"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" name="herein"/>
+ <MEANING>winged lizards</MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Ornithosauria"/>
+ <UNNAMED comment="crested, toothed"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Berriasian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large Dolomia di Forni">
+ <TIME value="Norian"/> <PLACE name="Italy"/>
+ <REMAINS content="wing phalanx 4 (137+mm long)"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Comodactylus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Laopteryx"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Rhamphinion"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Preondactylus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anurognathidae" silhouette="anurognathidae">
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Dendrorhynchoides"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Anurognathus" silhouette="anurognathus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Batrachognathus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sordes"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Scaphognathus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Odontorhynchus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Dorygnathus" silhouette="dorygnathus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dimorphodontidae" silhouette="dimorphodontidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Dimorphodon" silhouette="pterosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nesodactylus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Peteinosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Campylognathoididae">
+ <CGENUS name="Campylognathoides"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eudimorphodon"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rhamphorhynchidae" silhouette="rhamphorhynchidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Rhamphocephalus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rhamphorhynchus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Angustinaripterus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Parapsicephalus"/>
+ <CLINK name="Pterodactyloidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Pterosauria">
+ <CGENUS name="Preondactylus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dimorphodontidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Peteinosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Dimorphodon"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Nesodactylus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Anurognathinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Anurognathus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Batrachognathus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Tipidactyla" status="informal">
+ <CLADE name="Rhamphorhynchidae">
+ <CGENUS name="Eudimorphodon"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Campylognathoides"/>
+ <CLADE name="Rhamphorhynchinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Dorygnathus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rhamphorhynchus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sordes"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Scaphognathus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Parapsicephalus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Angustinaripterus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pterodactyloidea"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="Fliers Unlike Any Other"> Although they were the only other flying <LINK content="archosaurs"/>,
+pterosaurs were not closely related to <LINK content="birds"/>. Their
+wings had a very different structure. Birds support their wings with their
+second finger (or possibly third, if the frame shift hypothesis is true),
+while pterosaurs used the fourth. Additionally, pterosaurian
+wings were largely made up of skin membranes strengthened by fibers, while
+avian wings consist mainly of feathers. </P>
+
+<P header="Origins and Evolution"> Pterosaurs originated at about the
+same time as the
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>. They began as small, long-tailed forms,
+sometimes called "rhamphorhynchoids". From these came larger,
+short-tailed forms, which make up the group
+<LINK content="Pterodactyloidea"/>. </P>
+
+<P> There is a recent theory that pterosaurs were not archosaurs, but
+derived from some type of basal <LINK content="archosauromorph"/>.
+For more:
+<REFER page="http://home.stlnet.com/~azero/Pterosaur_Homepage.htm"
+title="The Pterosaur Home Page"/> </P>
+
+<P header="Integument"> Pterosaurs were unique among <LINK content="reptiles"/> in that at least some
+of them were covered with hair, similar but not homologous to
+<LINK content="mammalian"/> hair. Although in some cases fibers in the wing
+membrane have been mistaken for hair, some fossils such as those of
+<NOMEN name="Sordes pilosus"/> ("hairy demon") do show hair on the head,
+neck, and torso, much like modern-day bats. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Sauropoda" nickname="Behemoths of the Land">
+ <WORD key="1" content="brontosaur, cetiosaur, big, huge, large, humongous, giant, enormous, gigantic, biggest, largest, hugest, heaviest, heavy, bulky, bulkiest, earth, shaking, club, tail, tailed, neck, long, longest, defense, weapon"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="cetiosaur"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropoda" in="Saltasaurus" out="Plateosaurus" silhouette="sauropoda">
+ <AUTHOR name="Marsh" year="1878"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Wilson, Sereno"/>
+ <MEANING>lizard feet</MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Opisthocoelia" sensu="Riggs">
+ <AUTHOR name="Owen" year="1860"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LJ" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Algeria"/>
+ <REMAINS content="51 bones"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Hettangian"/>
+ <TIME value="Sinemurian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ <REMAINS content="left maxilla"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="middle" value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="late" value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="late" value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="New Zealand"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Bajocian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="LJ"/>
+ <PLACE name="Yemen"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ <TIME value="K" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="tooth"/>
+ <TIME value="Coniacian"/>
+ <TIME value="Santonian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large">
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small">
+ <PLACE name="England"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LJ"/>
+ <PLACE name="Portugal"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian" section="latest" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Asiatosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Cardiodon"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Kunmingosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Ultrasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tendaguriidae" incertae="1">
+ <AUTHOR name="Bonaparte, Heinrich, Wild" year="2000"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tendaguria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gongxianosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Isanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kotasaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Vulcanodon"/>
+ <CLADE in="Saltasaurus" out="Vulcanodon">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eusauropoda" sensu="Wilson, Sereno"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Datousaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shunosaurus" incertae="1" silhouette="shunosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Barapasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ohmdenosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Zizhongosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eusauropoda" in="Saltasaurus" out="Barapasaurus, Ohmdenosaurus, Vulcanodon, Zizhongosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Upchurch"/>
+ <MEANING>true sauropods</MEANING>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Chuanjiesaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Dachongosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Euhelopus" incertae="1" silhouette="euhelopodinae"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Klamelisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Lancanjiangosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lapparentosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Morosaurus agilis"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Oshanosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Pleurocoelus altus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Protognathosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Rhoetosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Tehuelchesaurus" silhouette="euhelopodinae"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Tienshanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Amygdalodon"/>
+ <CLADE incertae="1" name="Mamenchisauridae">
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Hudiesaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mamenchisaurus" silhouette="euhelopodinae"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Nurosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Omeisaurus" silhouette="euhelopodinae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Volkheimeria" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Patagosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cetiosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Rebbachisaurus tasmenensis" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Jobaria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Neosauropoda" in="Saltasaurus, Diplodocus">
+ <MEANING>
+ new sauropods
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Morrison">
+ <REMAINS content="60% complete skeleton"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/> <TIME value="LJ" section="late"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Cetiosauriscus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Qinlingosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Titanosaurus rahioliensis"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Haplocanthosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Agustiniidae" incertae="1" silhouette="agustiniidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Agustinidae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Agustinia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Diplodocimorpha"/>
+ <CLINK name="Macronaria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropoda">
+ <CLADE name="Vulcanodontidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Barapasauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Barapasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ohmdenosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Vulcanodon"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Zizhongosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Eusauropoda">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cetiosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Neosauropoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Euhelopodidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Mamenchisauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Bellusaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Hudiesaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Klamelisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Nurosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Tienshanosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Datousaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shunosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Euhelopodinae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Mamenchisaurinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Euhelopus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mamenchisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Omeisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropoda">
+ <CGENUS name="Vulcanodon"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eusauropoda" in="Saltasaurus" out="Vulcanodon">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Wilson, Sereno"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shunosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Barapasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Omeisaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Jobaria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Neosauropoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Sauropods were giant, long-necked <LINK content="dinosaurian"/> plant-eaters.
+All sauropods were quite large. Even the smallest ones were about as big as
+the largest members of other dinosaur groups. </P>
+
+<P header="Diversity"> Early sauropods like <NOMEN name="Vulcanodon"/> resembled large
+"<LINK content="prosauropods"/>". As sauropod evolution progressed,
+they became larger and more diverse. There were crested forms
+(<LINK content="macronarians"/>), armored forms
+(<LINK content="titanosaurs"/>), a plated form (<NOMEN name="Agustinia"/>),
+sailback forms (some <LINK content="diplodocimorphs"/>), and a
+club-tailed form (<NOMEN name="Shunosaurus"/>), but they were
+never quite as diverse as the other two major dinosaurian groups,
+<LINK content="Theropoda"/> and <LINK content="Ornithischia"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Classification"> The eusauropods shown here were often grouped together in Cetiosauridae,
+but it is probably a paraphyletic grouping. Vulcanodontidae, consisting of
+the non-eusauropod sauropods, is also probably paraphyletic. </P>
+
+<P header="Euhelopodidae or Not Euhelopodidae?"> There is a wide variance
+of opinion about this group, if it is a group. Some hold that the
+club-tailed <NOMEN name="Shunosaurus"/>, the long-necked euhelopodines
+(<NOMEN name="Euhelopus"/>, <NOMEN name="Mamenchisaurus"/>, and <NOMEN
+name="Omeisaurus"/>), and some of their relatives form a distinct clade.
+More recently, other studies have strewn these animals all over Sauropoda,
+placing <NOMEN name="Shunosaurus"/> as a basal <LINK content="sauropod"/>,
+<NOMEN name="Omeisaurus"/> as a "<LINK content="cetiosaur"/>"
+just outside <LINK content="Neosauropoda"/>, and <NOMEN name="Euhelopus"/>
+as a relative of <LINK content="titanosaurs"/>! </P>
+
+<P>The position of nemegtosaurids is also debated. Some place them
+as <LINK content="titanosaurs"/>, others as <LINK content="diplodocimorphs"/>.
+They are currently only reliably known from cranial material, which
+is often lacking in sauropod fossils.</P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Sauropodomorpha" nickname="Long-Necked Plant-Eaters">
+ <WORD key="1" content="brontosaur, prosauropod, early, plant, eating, herbivore, herbivourous"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="Prosauropoda, prosauropod, prosauropods"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropodomorpha" in="Saltasaurus" out="Neornithes" silhouette="sauropodomorpha">
+ <AUTHOR name="von Huene" year="1932"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ Sauropoda forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="MTr" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="LTr" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Carnian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ <TIME value="Carnian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Canada"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LTr"/>
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <REMAINS content="left maxilla with 12 teeth, rostral parts of jaw, pectoral girdles, forelimbs, vertebrae, ribs, gastralia"/>
+ <TIME value="LTr"/>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Gyposaurus sinensis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nyasasaurus" q="1" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saturnalia"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Azendohsaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Thecodontosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE silhouette="sauropodomorpha-large">
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <TIME value="MTr" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="LTr" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Madagascar"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Antarctica"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Anchisaurus" silhouette="sauropodomorpha"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chinshakiangosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Euskelosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lessemsaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Mussaurus" incertae="1" silhouette="sauropodomorpha"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Microdontosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Riojasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ruehleia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thotobolosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Yimenosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Plateosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Plateosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sellosaurus" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Blikanasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Melanorosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Camelotia"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Melanorosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Massospondylidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Yunnanosauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Coloradisaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lufengosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Massospondylus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Yunnanosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Jingshanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Yunnanosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Sauropoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropodomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropoda"/>
+ <CLADE name="Prosauropoda" in="Thecodontosaurus, Melanorosaurus, Plateosaurus" out="Saltasaurus">
+ <MEANING>
+ before Sauropoda
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Paleopoda"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Thecodontosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Anchisaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Ammosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Yunnanosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sellosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Plateosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Blikanasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Melanorosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropodomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropoda"/>
+ <CLADE name="Prosauropoda">
+ <CGENUS name="Riojasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gyposaurus sinensis"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Ammosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Plateosauria" in="Plateosaurus, Massospondylus">
+ <CLADE name="Plateosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Massospondylidae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Yunnanosauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Massospondylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Yunnanosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Sauropodomorpha">
+ <CGENUS name="Thecodontosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Anchisaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Yunnanosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Sellosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Plateosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Blikanasaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Melanorosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Sauropodomorphs were the long necked, herbivorous, lizard-hipped
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>, including the largest land animals of all
+time. </P>
+
+<P header='The "Prosauropods"'> The primitive sauropodomorphs listed
+here are commonly called
+"prosauropods". These were semi-quadrupedal herbivores from the
+<LINK content="Triassic"/> and <LINK content="Early Jurassic"/> with large,
+hooked claws on their feet. They were once thought to be omnivorous, since
+<LINK content="theropod"/> teeth found with them were often mistakenly
+thought to be the teeth of the prosauropods themselves. Instead, they were
+the largest herbivores of their day (although primitive ones may have been
+omnivorous). </P>
+
+<P> It is not certain whether "prosauropods" gave rise to the larger
+<LINK content="sauropods"/>, or if they are just the sister group to
+Sauropoda. No cladistic analysis has yet been done to test "prosauropod"
+monophyly. All to date have simply assumed monophyly based on the
+fact that prosauropods lack a digit that sauropods possess, lack of a digit
+usually being a derived trait, not a primitive one. </P>
+
+<P header="Brontosauria">
+The taxon Brontosauria was originally designated for a group containing
+Sauropoda and Prosauropoda, considered paraphyletic by its author. Here
+it has been cladistically translated as the node containing Sauropoda
+and Prosauropoda (<I>sensu</I> Wilson & Sereno), although this definition
+has not yet been used formally, to my knowledge. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Sauropsida" nickname="Scaly Ones" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="reptilian, monster, evolution, origin"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Mesosaurus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropsida" in="Reptilia" out="Mammalia" silhouette="sauropsida">
+ <MEANING>
+ lizard faces
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Reptilia" in="Crocodylia, Squamata, Sphenodon, Chelonia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Linnaeus"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1984"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ creepers
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLINK name="Anapsida"/>
+ <CLADE name="Romeriida" in="Sauria" out="Chelonia">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eureptilia"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ Romer's <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Batropetidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Bolosauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Captorhinidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Protorothyrididae" paraphyletic="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Diapsida" comment="two temporal fenestrae, at least primitively">
+ <MEANING>
+ two apses
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" incertae="1" name="Longisquama"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Endennasauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Mesenosauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Araeoscelida">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Araeoscelidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Petrolacosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Neodiapsida">
+ <MEANING>
+ new diapsids
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Coelurosauravidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Thalattosauria" q="1">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Askeptosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Claraziidae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Thalattosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Lazarussaurus"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Choristodera">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Champsosauria"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Cteniogenys"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Neochoristodera">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Champsosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Simedosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Sauria" in="Crocodylia, Squamata, Sphenodon">
+ <MEANING>
+ lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLINK name="Ichthyopterygia" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Sauropterygia" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Lepidosauromorpha"/>
+ <CLINK name="Archosauromorpha"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Sauropsida is one of the two great lineages of
+<LINK content="amniote"/> (the other being <LINK content="Synapsida"/>,
+which includes <LINK content="Mammalia"/>). All known sauropsids
+belong to the clade Reptilia. </P>
+
+<P header="History of Classification"> Reptilia was once a "grab-bag" taxon for every amniote that was neither
+a <LINK content="bird"/> nor a mammal. It was divided into four sections based
+on the number and alignment of certain holes in the back of the skull
+(temporal fenestrae): Anapsida (no holes), Synapsida (a low hole),
+Euryapsida (a high hole), and Diapsida (two holes -- includes
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>). </P>
+
+<P> Reptilia has since been re-defined as a clade: all the descendants of the
+most recent common ancestor of the four living groups considered reptiles:
+<LINK content="Chelonia"/> (turtles), <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Sphenodon"/> (tuatara),
+<LINK content="Squamata"/> (lizards and snakes), and <LINK content="Crocodylia"/>
+(crocodiles and kin). This definition excludes some creatures once considered
+reptiles (Synapsida -- formerly called "mammal-like reptiles"), and
+includes some creatures previously not considered reptilian
+<LINK content="Aves"/> -- birds). </P>
+
+<P> The groups Anapsida and Diapsida are still used as clades within Reptilia,
+slightly modified from their traditional meanings (Anapsida now excludes
+the most primitive sauropsids; Diapsida now includes birds). "Euryapsida",
+which included marine reptiles such as <LINK content="ichthyosaurs"/> and
+<LINK content="plesiosaurs"/>, is now recognized as an unnatural grouping of
+various aberrant diapsid lineages which lost their lower temporal
+fenestrae. </P>
+
+<P header="Domination"> The <LINK content="Mesozoic"/> is often called "The Age of Reptiles"
+because of the reptilian dominance during most of that era. Dinosaurs ruled
+the land, <LINK content="pterosaurs"/> ruled the skies, and a great variety
+of marine reptiles <LINK content="mosasaurs"/>, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs,
+etc.) ruled the oceans. Most of these creatures died out in the K-T
+extinction (ichthyosaurs died out earlier; champsosaurs, a freshwater
+lineage, later). </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Sauropterygia" nickname="Flipper Reptiles - Longnecks & Bigheads" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="loch, ness, pliosaurs, marine, sea, sea-going, oceanic, aquatic, swimming"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Cryptoclidus, Elasmosaurus, Kronosaurus, Leptocleidus, Plesiosaurus, Muraenosaurus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Sauropterygia" silhouette="sauropterygia">
+ <MEANING>
+ lizard fins
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Placodontia" content='"reptilian walruses"'>
+ <CLADE name="Helveticosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Placodontoidea">
+ <CGENUS name="Chelyoposuchus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Cyamodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Henodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Placodontidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Claudiosauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eusauropterygia">
+ <MEANING>
+ true sauropterygians
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Corosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Simosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Nothosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pachypleurosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cymatosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pistosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Plesiosauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Plesiosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Pliosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Plesiosauroidea">
+ <CLADE name="Plesiosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cryptoclididae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Elasmosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Polycotylidae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Sauropterygians were a group of marine reptiles of uncertain origin. At times
+allied to <LINK content="turtles"/> or <LINK content="prolacertiforms"/>, they are probably
+<LINK content="diapsids"/>, possibly a basal lineage of either
+<LINK content="Lepidosauromorpha"/> or <LINK content="Archosauromorpha"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="Characteristics and Niches"> Their limbs had evolved into
+flippers, which they used to swim through the
+<LINK content="Mesozoic"/> seas. The advanced sauropterygians, plesiosaurs,
+came in two main body forms. Pliosaurs had long, large heads, and short necks,
+similar to the distantly related <LINK content="mosasaurs"/>. Plesiosauroids
+had extremely long necks with tiny heads, looking something like a cross
+between a <LINK content="sea turtle"/> and a <LINK content="snake"/>.
+All sauropterygians were carnivorous. </P>
+
+<P> Placodonts may or may not have been sauropterygians. They were
+large, probably sluggish creatures somewhat similar in form to today's
+<LINK content="walruses"/> and <LINK content="sirenians"/>
+(manatees and dugongs). Their broad teeth splayed outward from their mouths.
+It has been suggested that they used them to crush <LINK content="mollusk"/>
+shells. </P>
+
+<P header="The End"> Sauropterygians died out at the end of the <LINK content="Cretaceous"/>,
+along with all non-<LINK content="neornithean"/> <LINK content="dinosaurs"/>.
+There have been reports of modern-day populations of plesiosauroids, but
+these have either turned out to be other animals (rotting basking shark
+carcasses) or deliberate hoaxes (the Loch Ness monster). </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Spinosauria" nickname="Sail-Backed Crocodile-Mimics">
+ <WORD key="1" content="sail, back, backed, sail-backed, sailbacked, finback, fin, crocodiles, sails, fins"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Spinosauria" silhouette="spinosauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Spinosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" q="1" name="Siamosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Spinosauridae" in="Spinosaurus, Baryonyx">
+ <AUTHOR name="Stromer" year="1915"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Spinosauroidea" sensu="Charig, Milner" year="1997"/>
+ <CLADE name="Baryonychinae" in="Baryonyx" out="Spinosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Charig, Milner" year="1986"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Baryonychidae" sensu="Charig, Milner" year="1986"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Cristatusaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Baryonyx"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Suchomimus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Spinosaurinae" in="Spinosaurus" out="Baryonyx">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Stromer" year="1915"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Spinosauridae" sensu="Charig, Milner" year="1986"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Spinosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Irritatorini">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Martill, al." year="1996"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Angaturama"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Irritator"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Spinosauria once included all theropods with tall vertebral spines. Some
+of these creatures, such as <NOMEN name="Acrocanthosaurus"/> and
+<NOMEN name="Becklespinax"/>, have since been allied to other groups. </P>
+
+<P header="Physical Characteristics"> Spinosaurs all have <LINK content="crocodile"/>-like conical teeth. Their
+long snouts have kinks like those of <LINK content="coelophysids"/> and some
+early <LINK content="synapsids"/>. It is thought that they used these for
+fishing, possibly in conjunction with other carnivorous activities. </P>
+
+<P> Baryonychines have more teeth at the end of their lower jaw than
+spinosaurines. Spinosaurines are characterized by straight, unserrated
+teeth. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Stegosauria" nickname="Plated Dinosaurs" silhouette="stegosaurinae">
+ <WORD key="1" content="stegosaurians, plates, plated, spikes, armored, armor, armoured, thermoregulation"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Stegosauria" in="Stegosaurus, Ankylosaurus" silhouette="stegosauria">
+ <MEANING><NOMEN nolink="1" name="Stegosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW></MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Aalenian" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Scotland"/>
+ <REMAINS content="partial arm bones"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Changtusaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Craterosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Gigantspinosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Katsuyamakensaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Regnosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Hesperosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Huayangosauridae" in="Huayangosaurus" out="Stegosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Huayangosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Stegosauridae" in="Stegosaurus" out="Huayangosaurus" silhouette="stegosauridae">
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LJ" section="late"/>
+ <PLACE name="U.S.A."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Hauterivian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Monkonosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Yingshanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Dacentrurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Kentrosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Chialingosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chungkingosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Stegosaurinae" silhouette="stegosaurinae">
+ <UNNAMED cf="Lexovisaurus">
+ <!--Wiehenbirge 1982-9-->
+ <TIME value="Callovian" section="middle"/>
+ <PLACE name="Germany"/>
+ <REMAINS content="fragmentary skeleton"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Lexovisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Paranthodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tuojiangosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Stegosaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Stegosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Wuerhosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header='"Roofed Reptiles"'> These primarily <LINK
+content="Jurassic"/> herbivores had two rows of
+plates and/or spikes going down the back. </P>
+
+<P> Although the spikes, which were usually found on the tail, were certainly
+used for defense, the exact purpose of the plates is unknown. They could
+not have made very effective armor, since they left the sides completely
+exposed. Perhaps they performed a similar function to the sails of
+<NOMEN name="Spinosaurus"/>, <NOMEN name="Ouranosaurus"/>, and
+<NOMEN name="Rebbachisaurus"/>, whatever that
+function was (possibly heat regulation, sexual display, or both). </P>
+
+<P header="The End"> Stegosaurs did not last to the end of the <LINK content="Mesozoic Era"/>,
+but died out during the <LINK content="Cretaceous Period"/>, possibly due to
+competition from other <LINK content="ornithischian"/> herbivores or from a
+change in flora (the transition from gymnosperms to angiosperms) which they
+could not adapt to. One creature which was thought to be a
+<LINK content="Late Cretaceous"/> stegosaur (<NOMEN name="Dravidosaurus"/>)
+has turned out to be a <LINK content="plesiosaur"/>! (This is not the only
+time marine <LINK content="vertebrate"/> remains have been mistaken for
+stegosaur remains -- the plates of
+<NOMEN name="Lexovisaurus durobrivensis"/> turned out to be gill
+rakers from a fish!) </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Synapsida" nickname="Mammals and Kin" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="proto-mammals, proto, mammals, mammal-like, like, pelycosaurian, sailbacked, sail, back, fin, finbacked, backed"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" key="1" content="pelycosaurs"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Cynognathus, Edaphosaurus, Dimetrodon, Lycaenops, Lystrosaurus, Moschops, Oligokyphus, Titanopheus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Synapsida" in="Mammalia" out="Reptilia" silhouette="synapsida">
+ <MEANING>
+ fused apses
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Theropsida"/>
+ <CLADE name="Caseasauria" in="Casea" out="Mammalia">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Casea"/> lizards
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Caseidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eothyrididae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Eupelycosauria" in="Mammalia" out="Casea">
+ <MEANING>
+ true pelycosaurs
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Varanopsidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Ophiacodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Edaphosauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sphenacodontia">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Sphenacodon"/>'s <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CGENUS name="Haptodus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Palaeohatteria"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Pantelosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Cutleria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Sphenacodontoidea" in="Sphenacodon, Mammalia">
+ <CLADE name="Sphenacodontidae" content="Dimetrodon, Sphenacoon, etc."/>
+ <CLADE name="Therapsida" in="Mammalia" out="Sphenacodon">
+ <MEANING>
+ beast apses
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Neotheropsida"/>
+ <CLADE name="Biarmosuchia"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Dinocephalia" content="Moschops, etc.">
+ <MEANING>
+ terrible heads
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anomodontia">
+ <CLADE name="Dromasauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Venyukiamorpha"/>
+ <CLADE name="Dicynodontia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Theriodontia">
+ <CLADE name="Gorgonopsia" content="Lycaenops, etc."/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Therocephalia">
+ <MEANING>
+ beast heads
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Cynodontia">
+ <MEANING>
+ dog teeth
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Dviniidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Galesauridae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Procynosuchidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eucynodontia" in="Cynognathus, Mammalia">
+ <MEANING>
+ true cynodonts
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Cynognathidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Probainognathia">
+ <CLADE name="Tritylodontoidea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Eoraetia" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kunminia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Chiniquodontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tritheledontidae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Mammaliformes">
+ <MEANING>
+ Mammalia forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Mammalia" sensu="lato"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Adelobasilus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinoconodon" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Theroteinus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tricuspes" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gobiconodontidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Morganucodontidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Docodonta" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Mammalia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Once called <LINK content="mammal"/>-like <LINK content="reptiles"/>,
+the animals shown here are no longer considered reptiles. Instead, they were
+the non-mammalian members of a separate lineage. Their skin was
+probably not dry and scaly like true reptiles. </P>
+
+<P header="Evolutionary Dynasties"> Synapsids were the first terrestrial vertebrates to truly dominate the
+landscape. There were two main "waves", the "pelycosaurs" (non-therapsid
+synapsids) in the Permian and then the early therapsids in the
+<LINK content="Triassic"/>. </P>
+
+<P> "Pelycosaurs" were probably cold-blooded. They ranged from large
+herbivores like <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Casea"/> to snaggle-toothed,
+sail-backed predators like <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Dimetrodon"/>.
+The advanced ones show the beginnings of the mammalian tooth pattern -- incisors,
+canines, and molars. </P>
+
+<P> Some (but probably not all) therapsids were warm-blooded, fur-covered,
+and milk-giving. They varied from the beaked, tusked, and herbivorous
+dicynodonts to the sleek, predatory <NOMEN nolink="1" name="Cynognathus"/>.
+By the end of the Triassic, most of these forms had died out, replaced by
+<LINK content="archosaurs"/> (including <LINK content="dinosaurs"/>). Only
+a few small <LINK content="Probainognathia"/> survived, including some of
+the earliest <LINK content="mammals"/>.</P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Tetanurae" nickname="Three-Fingered Meat-Eaters">
+ <WORD key="1" content="tetanurines, megalosaurs, predators, carnivorous, flesh, meat, hunters, carnivores"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="megalosaur, megalosaurs"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Tetanurae" in="Neornithes" out="Ceratosaurus" silhouette="tetanurae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Gauthier" year="1986"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ stiff tails
+ </MEANING>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <REMAINS content="pedal phalanx, caudal centrum"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mississippi"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Callovian"/>
+ <PLACE name="France"/>
+ <REMAINS content="braincase"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Erectopus">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="tall-spined" silhouette="acrocanthosaurus">
+ <PLACE name="England"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Allosaurus sp."/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Becklespinax" silhouette="acrocanthosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eustreptospondylus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Kaijiangosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Metriacanthosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Piatnitzkysaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Streptospondylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Unquillosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Walkersaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saltriosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Valdoraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Zupaysaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Avipoda" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE in="Neornithes, Torvosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Tetanurae" sensu="Sereno"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Spinosauroidea" sensu="Sereno" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chilantaisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Erectopus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Afrovenator" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Spinosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Torvosauridae" in="Torvosaurus" out="Spinosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Megalosauridae"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eustreptospondylidae" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Brontoraptor"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Edmarka"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megalosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Poekilopleuron"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Torvosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Neotetanurae" in="Neornithes, Allosaurus">
+ <MEANING>new tetanurans</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Sereno, al." year="1994"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Avetheropoda">
+ <AUTHOR name="Paul" year="1988"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Holtz" year="1994"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Tetanurae" sensu="Novas"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Marshosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tugulusaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Carnosauria"/>
+ <CLINK name="Coelurosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Tetanurae">
+ <CLADE name="Neotetanurae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Spinosauroidea" in="Spinosaurus, Torvosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Sereno"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Megalosauroidea"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Torvosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Spinosauridae" in="Spinosaurus" out="Torvosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Sereno"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Torvosauridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Tetanurae consists of the advanced <LINK content="theropods"/>,
+including <LINK content="birds"/> and their ancestors. Tetanurans are
+characterized by three fingers or less, an opening in the skull between the
+antorbital fenestra and the naris (nostril) called the maxillary fenestra, and
+stiffened tails (Tetanurae means "stiffened tails"). </P>
+
+<P header="Classification and History"> The non-neotetanuran groups listed
+here are sometimes grouped together in a group sometimes called
+Megalosauria or Megalosauroidea, although this is probably a paraphyletic
+group, as shown here. Most "megalosaurs" were large carnivores. Some think
+<LINK content="Spinosauridae"/> and Torvosauridae (=Megalosauridae) make a
+group, sharing enlarged, sickle-shaped thumb claws. </P>
+
+<P> <NOMEN name="Megalosaurus"/> was the first
+non-<LINK content="neornithean"/> <LINK content="dinosaur"/> to be
+described. The family Megalosauridae was once a grab-bag for all sorts of
+large theropods: <LINK content="spinosaurs"/>, <LINK content="allosaurs"/>,
+large <LINK content="ceratosaurs"/>, large <LINK content="coelurosaurs"/>
+etc. </P>
+
+<P header="Advanced Characteristics"> Neotetanurans, an advanced group of tetanurans, had complex air
+passages in their vertebrae and ribs. The furcula, a bone which is not always
+preserved, has been found in a <LINK content="carnosaur"/>
+(<NOMEN name="Allosaurus"/>) and several <LINK content="coelurosaurs"/>, so
+it seems to be a neotetanuran trait as well. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Tetrapoda" nickname="Terrestrial Vertebrates" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" content="terrestrial, land, amniotic"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Acanthostega, Eryops, Limnoscelis, Siderops, Triadobatrachus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Tetrapoda" silhouette="tetrapoda">
+ <MEANING>
+ four feet
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Elginerpetonidae"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Metaxygnathus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Ventistega"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Acanthostega"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Ichthyostega"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Antlerpeton" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Hynerpeton"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Tulerpeton"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Crassigyrinus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Temnospondyli"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Whatcheeria"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Embolomeri"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Gephyrostegida"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Solenodonsaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Chroniosuchidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Limnoscelidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Seymouriamorpha"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Nycteroleteridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Tokosauridae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Tseajaiidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE in="Lissamphibia, Amniota">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Tetrapoda" sensu="stricto"/>
+ <CLADE name="Amphibia" content="frogs, salamanders, blindworms, etc." in="Lissamphibia" out="Amniota">
+ <MEANING>
+ double lives
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Amniotomorpha" in="Amniota" out="Lissamphibia">
+ <MEANING>
+ Amniota forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Lysorophia" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS extinct="1" name="Westlothiana"/>
+ <CLADE name="Amniotiformes" status="informal">
+ <MEANING>
+ Amniota forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Diadectomorpha"/>
+ <CLADE name="Amniota" in="Reptilia, Mammalia" comment="possess amniotic sac in egg">
+ <CLADE extinct="1" name="Acleistorhinidae" q="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Synapsida"/>
+ <CLINK name="Sauropsida"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Among terrestrial vertebrates, <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> belong to
+Amniota, a clade characterized by the ability to procreate on land. Of the
+two main branches of amniotes, dinosaurs belong to
+<LINK content="Sauropsida"/>, which includes other
+<LINK content="reptiles"/> as well. The sister clade to Sauropsida,
+<LINK content="Synapsida"/>, includes <LINK content="mammals"/>. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Therizinosauria" nickname="Weirdest of the Weird">
+ <WORD key="1" content="scythe, sickle, feathers, feathered, integument, skin, impressions"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauria" in="Therizinosaurus" out="Oviraptor, Ornithomimus, Troodon" silhouette="therizinosauria">
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="D. A. Russell" year="1997"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" name="herein"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Therizinosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Segnosauria"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Segnosaurischia"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Erlikosaurus" q="1" incertae="1">
+ <TIME section="middle-late" value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Alberta"/>
+ <REMAINS content="frontal"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <REMAINS content="partial skeleton including forelimbs"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Neimenggusaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chilantaisaurus zheziangensis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" name="Beipiaosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauroidea" in="Therizinosaurus, Alxasaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Maleev" year="1954"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="D. A. Russell, Dong" year="1995"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Segnosauroidea"/>
+ <CLADE name="Alxasauridae" in="Alxasaurus" out="Therizinosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="D. A. Russell, Dong" year="1995"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Alxasaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosauridae" in="Therizinosaurus" out="Alxasaurus">
+ <AUTHOR name="Maleev" year="1954"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="non" name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Segnosauridae"/>
+ <CGENUS q="1" incertae="1" name="Nanshiungosaurus bohlini"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nothronychus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Therizinosaurinae">
+ <CGENUS name="Enigmosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Erlikosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Nanshiungosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Segnosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Therizinosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P header="A Puzzler"> These Asian <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> pose some taxonomic problems. They were
+originally classified as <LINK content="theropods"/>, although they have
+some features very uncharacteristic for theropods. Their hips are
+bird-like, although some theropods such as the <LINK
+content="dromaeosaurids"/> and <LINK content="birds"/> themselves have
+bird-like hips as well. The front of the snout is a toothless beak,
+although <LINK content="oviraptorids"/>, <LINK content="ornithomimids"/>,
+and several <LINK content="avian"/> lineages have toothless beaks as well.
+But the feet, which have four functional, forward-facing toes, are utterly
+unlike any other theropod feet. Except for some <LINK
+content="modern birds"/>, all theropods have three functional toes and a
+reduced dewclaw. </P>
+
+<P header="Competing Viewpoints"> Another theory was that they were an
+outgroup to the <LINK content="ornithischians"/>, since ornithischians have
+bird-like hips (although they are only superficially bird-like), beaks, and,
+in the most primitive ornithischians, four toes. It has also been proposed
+that they are late-surviving relatives of
+"<LINK content="prosauropods"/>", since their teeth and feet are
+similar to those of "prosauropods". (They are similar enough that
+one jawbone from the Early Jurassic of China was published as the earliest
+therizinosaur, although it is more likely a "prosauropod".) </P>
+
+<P header="A Consensus (Sort Of)"> The discovery of <NOMEN name="Alxasaurus"/>,
+a therizinosaur more primitive than those previously known, seemed to bolster
+the theropod theory, as it had some <LINK content="coelurosaurian"/>
+features. More recently, the discovery of an even more primitive
+therizinosaur, <NOMEN name="Beipiaosaurus"/>, solidifies the therizinosaurs'
+status as theropods, since it has a dewclaw. Interestingly, it also has
+impressions of feathers or feather-like integument. </P>
+
+<P> There is still disagreement over which coelurosaurian group
+therizinosaurs are related to. They have been allied with <LINK
+content="deinonychosaurs"/>, <LINK content="ornithomimosaurs"/>, and <LINK
+content="oviraptorosaurs"/>. <NOMEN name="Beipiaosaurus"/> has
+oviraptorosaur-like features in its pelvis. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Theropoda" nickname="Meat-Eaters & Kin" silhouette="neotheropoda">
+ <WORD key="1" content="predatory, predator, carnivorous, flesh, meat, carnivore, raptor, meat-eating, flesh-eating, hunter, bird, avian, herrerasaur, staurikosaur"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Theropoda" in="Neornithes" out="Saltasaurus" silhouette="dinosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Marsh" year="1881"/>
+ <MEANING>
+ beast feet
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Goniopoda"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="New Zealand"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="small Kota">
+ <TIME value="EJ"/> <TIME value="MJ"/>
+ <PLACE name="India"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Arctosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Carnosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Coelurosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Protoavis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Spinosuchus" q="1" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Velocipes" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Eoraptor"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large">
+ <PLACE name="S. America"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large, primitive">
+ <PLACE name="Germany"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLADE name="Herrerasauria">
+ <MEANING><NOMEN name="Herrerasaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW></MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM q="1" name="Herreravia">
+ <AUTHOR name="Paul" year="1988"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <CLADE name="Herrerasauridae" in="Herrerasaurus, Staurikosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM q="1" name="Spondylosomatidae"/>
+ <AUTHOR name="Benedetto" year="1973"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Novas" year="1992"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LTr"/>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <REMAINS content="pubis, ischium, dorsal & caudal vertebrae"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Caseosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chindesaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Staurikosaurinae" in="Staurikosaurus" out="Herrerasaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Staurikosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Herrerasaurinae" in="Herrerasaurus" out="Staurikosaurus">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Benedetto" year="1973"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Herrerasaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Guaibasauridae" q="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Guaibasaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Neotheropoda" in="Neornithes, Ceratosaurus" silhouette="neotheropoda">
+ <MEANING>new theropods</MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR name="Bakker" year="1986"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Sereno"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="large">
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <REMAINS content="partial skull"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME section="late" value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="(dromaeosaurid?)">
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="partial humerus"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" q="1">
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Australia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <PLACE name="New Zealand"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="neck vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth, vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Coniacian"/>
+ <TIME value="Santonian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="tibia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Valanginian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Valanginian"/>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Campanian" section="latest" q="1"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="K" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <REMAINS content="small teeth"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="giant, tall-spined">
+ <TIME section="earliest" value="Oxfordian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Germany"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="large">
+ <TIME value="J" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="J" q="1"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ <REMAINS content="postcranium"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Barremian"/>
+ <PLACE name="China"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Alabama"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED incertae="1">
+ <TIME value="EK"/> <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <REMAINS content="nearly complete skeleton" museum="MUCPv" id="301"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/><PLACE name="Niger"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Aliwalia" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Altispinax"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Alwalkeria" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" q="1" name="Calamospondylus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Capitalsaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chuandongocoelurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Coeluroides" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elaphrosaurus gautieri" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elaphrosaurus iguidensis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Embasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Inosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kagasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Katsuyamasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Kelmayisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Liassaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Magnosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Megalosaurus andrewsi"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megalosaurus chubutensis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megalosaurus insignis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megalosaurus pannoniensis" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megalosaurus pombali" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Megalosaurus terquemi" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Merosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Mifunesaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Newtonsaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ngexisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Poekilopleuron schmidti" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Prodeinodon"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Quilmesaurus" silhouette="tetanurae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sidormimus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sigilmassasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinocoelurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Teinurosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tsuchikurasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Wakinosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Walgettosuchus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Ceratosauria" in="Ceratosaurus" out="Neornithes">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Ceratosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Gauthier" year="1984"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="non" name="Sereno" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elaphrosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Coelophysoidea"/>
+ <CLINK name="Neoceratosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLINK name="Tetanurae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Coelophysoidea"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Dilophosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Neotheropoda">
+ <CLADE name="Ceratosauria"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tetanurae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Dinosauria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Theropoda is an incredibly diverse group of <LINK
+content="dinosaurs"/>. Most of the Mesozoic theropods were sharp-toothed
+predators, although there have been a few toothless, possibly herbivorous
+groups. During the <LINK content="Jurassic"/> (or possibly <LINK
+content="Triassic"/>), some theropods evolved into feathered, flying
+forms. Their descendants are today's <LINK content="birds"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="An Odd Name"> The group Theropoda ("beast feet") was named early on in
+paleontological history, along with <LINK content="Ornithopoda"/> ("bird
+feet" - a major <LINK content="ornithischian"/> group). It almost seems as
+though the names were somehow mixed up and improperly assigned, since
+theropods have bird-like feet and ornithopods have somewhat more <LINK
+content="mammal"/>-like feet, but the names stuck and it's far too late to
+change them now. </P>
+
+<P header="Origin and Evolution"> The non-neotheropod genera shown above
+are often informally referred
+to as "herrerasaurs". "Herrerasaurs" may be basal theropods, as shown
+here, basal <LINK content="saurischians"/>, or even basal <LINK
+content="dinosauriforms"/>. They had many primitive features, such as five
+digits on the hands, although the outer two were very small and had no
+claws. </P>
+
+<P> <ILLO name="coelophysid_manus" caption="ceratosaurian manus"/> <ILLO
+name="dromaeosaurid_manus" caption="tetanuran manus"/> The more advanced
+theropods, or neotheropods, are divided into two groups. The ceratosaurs
+retained four digits on the hand (the outer one reduced), while the more
+advanced <LINK content="tetanurans"/> only have three. Ceratosaurs were
+further characterized by extra openings in cervical and dorsal centra,
+fused pelvic bones and tarsals (in adults), and some modifications of the
+tibia and fibula. </P>
+
+<P> It is possible that Ceratosauria as shown here is a paraphyletic group,
+characterized only by primitive features. Neoceratosaurs may be share more recent
+ancestry with tetanurans than with coelophysoids. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Thyreophora" nickname="Armored Dinosaurs" silhouette="thyreophoroidea">
+ <WORD key="1" content="armored, armoured, armor, armour, plated, plates, scuted, spikes, spiked, defense, tank"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="armored tanks"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Thyreophora" in="Ankylosaurus" out="Triceratops" silhouette="thyreophora">
+ <UNNAMED><PLACE name="Niger"/><TIME value="EK" section="early"/></UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Bienosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Scutellosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Thyreophoroidea" in="Ankylosaurus" out="Scutellosaurus" silhouette="thyreophoroidea">
+ <MEANING>
+ Thyreophora forms
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Enoplosauria" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Lusitanosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tatisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Emausaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eurypoda" in="Ankylosaurus, Stegosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Scelidosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Brachypodosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CLINK name="Stegosauria"/>
+ <CLINK name="Ankylosauria"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Ornithischia"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> Thyreophora includes the "armored <LINK content="dinosaurs"/>", a
+group of primarily quadrupedal <LINK content="ornithischians"/> with bony
+plates, scutes, and/or spikes protecting their backs from theropod
+predators. Some <LINK content="titanosaurian"/> <LINK content="sauropods"/>
+also exhibited armor like this. </P>
+
+<P header="Origin and Evolution"> <NOMEN name="Scutellosaurus"/> was
+once classified as a <LINK
+content="fabrosaurid"/>, but it is really the earliest and most primitive
+known member of this clade of armored dinosaurs. It was small, like
+"fabrosaurids", but more robust and with bony scutes as armor. </P>
+
+<P> The more advanced thyreophorans, like <NOMEN name="Scelidosaurus"/>, were
+larger and fully quadrupedal. Creatures like this are thought to have
+given rise to the two major lineages of thyreophorans, the plated <LINK
+content="stegosaurs"/> and the heavily armored <LINK
+content="ankylosaurs"/>.</P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Titanosauria" nickname="Armored Sauropods - The Largest of the Large">
+ <WORD key="1" content="big, huge, large, giant, long, armored, armor, armoured, armour, titan, titanic, gigantic, largest, biggest"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="titanosaurian"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauria" in="Titanosaurus" out="Brachiosaurus, Euhelopus" silhouette="titanosauria">
+ <MEANING>
+ <NOMEN name="Titanosaurus"/>' <LOW>taxon</LOW>
+ </MEANING>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Wilson, Sereno" year="1998"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ <REMAINS content="osteoderm"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED><PLACE name="Niger"/><TIME value="Aptian"/><REMAINS content="axial column, pelvis"/></UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED><PLACE name="Niger"/><TIME value="Cenomanian"/><REMAINS content="nearly complete postcranium"/></UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Bauru">
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Bauru">
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Bauru">
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED q="1">
+ <TIME value="LK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ <REMAINS content="postcranium"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ <REMAINS content="vertebrae, braincase, etc."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Aegyptosaurus">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Africa"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Alamosaurus" comment="large">
+ <PLACE name="Texas"/>
+ <TIME value="Maastrichtian"/>
+ <REMAINS content="12 cervical vertebrae"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED comment="giant">
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian"/>
+ <!-- LENGTH value="51"/ -->
+ <REMAINS content="cervical vertebrae, femur, etc."/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Aegyptosaurus">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Egypt"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="IPGH" id="1912VIII65" content="caudal vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Aegyptosaurus">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Egypt"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="IPGH" id="1912VIII66" content="vertebra"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED cf="Aegyptosaurus">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <TIME value="Cenomanian" section="early"/>
+ <PLACE name="Egypt"/>
+ <REMAINS museum="IPGH" id="1912VIII67" content="2 cervical? vertebrae"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Aegyptosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Aepisaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Algoasaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Bruhathkayosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Campylodoniscus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Clasmodosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Iuticosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Chubutisaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pleurocoelus sp." q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Macrurosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tangvayosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Titanosaurus falloti" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Phuwiangosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Huabeisauridae" q="1" incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Huabeisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <PLACE name="Argentina"/>
+ <REMAINS content="skull"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Paralititan" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Andesaurus"/>
+ <CLADE in="Epachthosaurus, Saltasaurus, Argyrosaurus, Lirainosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Titanosauria" sensu="Sanz, J. Powell, Le Loeuff, Martinez, Pereda-Suberbiola" year="1999"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Ampelosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Hypselosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Jainosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Magyarosaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pellegrinisauridae" incertae="1">
+ <AUTHOR type="implied" name="Salgado" year="1996"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Pellegrinisaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Epachthosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Janenschia"/>
+ <CLADE in="Saltasaurus, Argyrosaurus, Lirainosaurus">
+ <CSYNONYM q="1" name="Eutitanosauria">
+ <AUTHOR name="Sanz, J. Powell, Le Loeuff, Martinez, Pereda-Suberbiola" year="1999"/>
+ </CSYNONYM>
+ <CLADE incertae="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Lirainosaurus"/>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Peiropolis">
+ <PLACE name="Brazil"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Argentinosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Antarctosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Laplatasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Malawisaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Nemegtosauridae" q="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Nemegtosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Quaesitosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Rapetosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Alamosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Argyrosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Titanosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Aeolosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gondwanatitan" q="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Saltasauridae" in="Saltasaurus, Opisthocoelicaudia">
+ <CLADE name="Opisthocoelicaudinae" in="Opisthocoelicaudia" out="Saltasaurus" q="1">
+ <CGENUS name="Opisthocoelicaudia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Saltasaurinae" out="Opisthocoelicaudia" in="Saltasaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Neuquensaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Saltasaurini">
+ <CGENUS name="Rocasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Saltasaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauroidea" sensu="Sanz, J. Powell, Le Loeuff, Martinez, Pereda-Suberbiola" year="1999">
+ <CGENUS name="Opisthocoelicaudia"/>
+ <CLADE name="Titanosauria" sensu="Sanz, J. Powell, Le Loeuff, Martinez, Pereda-Suberbiola" year="1999" in="Epachthosaurus, Saltasaurus, Argyrosaurus, Lirainosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Epachthosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Eutitanosauria">
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Saltasaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Argyrosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Lirainosaurus"/>
+ <UNNAMED comment="Peiropolis"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <REFER page="Macronaria"/>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> These primarily Cretaceous animals represent the last group of <LINK
+content="sauropods"/> before the great K/T extinction. Bony plates have
+been found with some specimens, indicating that they were armored, like
+<LINK content="ankylosaurs"/>. </P>
+
+<P header="True Titans"> South American forms such as <NOMEN name="Argentinosaurus"/> were some
+of the largest land animals of all time, probably larger than the gigantic
+<LINK content="brachiosaurids"/> of the <LINK content="Jurassic"/>.
+<NOMEN name="Argentinosaurus"/> has been estimated at 80-100 metric
+tonnes. Others, like <NOMEN name="Andesaurus"/>, <NOMEN
+name="Antarctosaurus"/>, and <NOMEN name="Argyrosaurus"/>, may have been
+of similar size. </P>
+
+<P header="Humble Beginnings"> Argentinian egg material has been attributed to titanosaurs. The eggs are
+typically 11-12cm in diameter, some up to 17cm. From relatively
+small eggs like these came creatures which would grow thousands of times
+larger! Eggs have also been attributed to <NOMEN name="Hypselosaurus"/>, a
+European titanosaur. Recently, Argentinian titanosaur eggs containing
+fossilized embryos with skin impressions were discovered. The impressions
+show non-overlapping scales, like those seen in many other
+<LINK content="dinosaur"/> skin impressions. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Troodontidae" nickname="Brainy, Big-Eyed Dinos">
+ <WORD key="1" content="dinosauroid, brainy, brain, smart, intelligent, intelligence, e.q., nocturnal, sickle, claw, switchblade"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="night prowlers"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Troodontidae" in="Troodon" out="Deinonychus, Neornithes, Ornithomimus, Oviraptor, Therizinosaurus, Tyrannosaurus" silhouette="troodontidae">
+ <AUTHOR name="Gilmore" year="1924"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="sensu" name="Varricchio" year="1997"/>
+ <AUTHOR type="emended" name="herein"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Saurornithoididae"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Troödontidae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Koparion" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1">
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Utah"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <TIME value="Aptian"/>
+ <TIME value="Albian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Mongolia"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Araucanoraptor" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Sinornithoides"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Borogovia" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tochisaurus" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Byronosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Saurornithoides"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Troodon"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P>The phylogeny above is somewhat tentative.</P>
+<P header="Intelligence and Niche"> Troodontids (formerly known as
+saurornithoidids) were remarkable in
+having the largest E.Q. (encephalization quotient) of all non-<LINK
+content="avialan"/> <LINK content="dinosaurs"/>. Intelligence-wise, they may
+have been on level with some modern-day <LINK content="birds"/>. The large
+brain, huge eyes, and grasping hands of these <LINK content="theropods"/>
+may indicate a nocturnal, predatory lifestyle. However, their teeth may
+indicate omnivory. </P>
+
+<P header="Feet of Death"> The feet were equipped with "switchblade claws", similar to those of
+<LINK content="dromaeosaurids"/>. They were once placed with the
+dromaeosaurids in <LINK content="Deinonychosauria"/>, but this grouping
+has been questioned. They share some features with <LINK
+content="ornithomimosaurs"/>, such as a pinched middle metatarsal
+(possibly a speed adaptation), features of the braincase, and large eyes.
+They have also been placed in basal <LINK content="Paraves"/>, basal <LINK
+content="Avialae"/>, and as sister group of the <LINK
+content="oviraptorosaur"/>-<LINK content="therizinosaur"/> group. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Tyrannosauroidea" nickname="Tyrant Kings of the Dinosaurs">
+ <WORD key="1" content="t-rex, rex, tyrant, trex"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="gigantic predators, tyrannosaur, tyrannosaurs"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauroidea" in="Tyrannosaurus" out="Ornithomimus, Neornithes" silhouette="coelurosauria-large">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Tyrannosauria"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Deinodontoidea"/>
+ <UNNAMED>
+ <REMAINS content="premaxillary tooth"/>
+ <PLACE name="Japan"/>
+ <TIME value="EK"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Eotyrannus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Futabasaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Iliosuchus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Itemirus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Siamotyrannus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stokesosaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tonouchisaurus" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauridae" silhouette="tyrannosauroidea">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Deinodontidae"/>
+ <UNNAMED indet="1" comment="gracile">
+ <TIME section="middle-late" value="Campanian"/>
+ <PLACE name="Alberta"/>
+ </UNNAMED>
+ <CGENUS name="Alectrosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS incertae="1" name="Chingkankousaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosaurinae" in="Tyrannosaurus" out="Alectrosaurus, Aublysodon">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Deinodontinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Deinodon" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Alioramus" silhouette="alioramus"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Albertosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Gorgosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosaurini" in="Tyrannosaurus" out="Albertosaurus, Gorgosaurus">
+ <CGENUS name="Aublysodon" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shanshanosaurus" incertae="1" q="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Daspletosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tarbosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Tyrannosaurus"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADOGRAM alternate="1">
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosauridae">
+ <CGENUS name="Alectrosaurus"/>
+ <CLADE name="Tyrannosaurinae"/>
+ <CLADE name="Aublysodontinae">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Shanshanosaurinae"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Aublysodon" incertae="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Shanshanosaurus"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Stygivenator"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+<P> This was the last group of huge predatory
+<LINK content="dinosaurs"/>, including the
+ever-popular <NOMEN name="Tyrannosaurus rex"/> ("king of the tyrant
+lizards"), a 40+ foot-long monster, largest of all land predators,
+excluding some <LINK content="carcharodontosaurine allosaurids"/>. </P>
+
+<P> For all their size and strength, tyrannosaurids had remarkably small arms
+with only two fingers on the hand, the third digit having degenerated to
+near nothingness. </P>
+
+<P header="Fast Predators or Slow Scavengers?"> The near lack of forelimbs in tyrannosaurids (and to a lesser extent in
+some other large predatory dinosaurs) poses an interesting problem: How
+did they deal with tripping? A recent study of <NOMEN
+name="Tyrannosaurus rex"/> which incorporated data from studies of fall
+trauma suggests that if <NOMEN name="T. rex"/> were to trip while running
+at top speed, the force of its fall would crush it. Therefore, it may be
+that <NOMEN name="T. rex"/> and other large tyrannosaurids restrained
+themselves to a more conservative speed. </P>
+
+<P> There have been some proposals that <NOMEN name="Tyrannosaurus"/> and
+perhaps other large tyrannosaurines were scavengers rather than predators,
+since they had such tiny arms and couldn't run at top speed. But in
+today's world there are no such things as true terrestrial scavengers
+(vultures are aerial, not terrestrial, and can cover much more ground with
+much less effort). All other terrestrial animals that eat carrion will
+also hunt for their prey. It is likely that <NOMEN name="Tyrannosaurus"/>
+fell into this category -- a hunter who wouldn't pass up an opportunity
+for a "free meal". Its huge head, muscular neck, and dagger-like teeth
+would easily have made up for its tiny arms, and its main prey, <LINK
+content="duck-billed dinosaurs"/>, probably had similar problems in
+running at top speed, as they also had small forearms (albeit not nearly
+as small as tyrannosaurid forearms) and large body size. Large
+tyrannosaurines could almost certainly run faster than any animal of their
+size. Their legs were similar to those of their close relatives the <LINK
+content="ornithomimosaurs"/> (a.k.a. "ostrich mimics"), often considered
+the fastest (running) dinosaurs of all. </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
+
+<TAXON name="Vertebrata" nickname="Animals with Backbones" simple="1">
+ <WORD key="1" essay="1" content="fish"/>
+ <WORD essay="1" content="ray"/>
+ <INCLUDED content="Carcharias, Carcharodon, Carcharocles, Cladoselaches, Dunkleosteus, Helicoprion, Leedsichthys, Lepidotes, Longania, Squatina, Stethacanthus, Xiphactinus"/>
+ <CLADOGRAM>
+ <CLADE name="Vertebrata" silhouette="vertebrata">
+ <MEANING>
+ vertebrae
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Hyperoartia" q="1" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Conodontia" q="1" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Pteraspidomorphi" content="lampreys, etc.">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Diplorhina"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Thelodonti" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Anaspida" extinct="1" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Galeaspida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Pituriaspida" q="1" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Osteostraci" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Gnathostomata" content="animals with jaws">
+ <MEANING>
+ jawed mouths
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Placodermi" content="certain armored fish" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Chondrichthyes" content="sharks, rays, ratfish">
+ <MEANING>
+ cartilaginous fish
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Teleostomi" content="animals with bony skeletons">
+ <CLADE name="Acanthodii" content='spiny "sharks"' extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Osteichthyes">
+ <MEANING>
+ bony fish
+ </MEANING>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Euteleostomi"/>
+ <CSYNONYM name="Neoteleostomi"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Psarolepis" q="1" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Lophosteiformes" q="1" extinct="1">
+ <CLADE name="Actinopterygii" content="ray-finned fish">
+ <MEANING>
+ ray fins
+ </MEANING>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Sarcopterygii" content="vertebrates with fleshy limbs">
+ <MEANING>
+ flesh fins
+ </MEANING>
+ <CLADE name="Onychodontiformes" q="1" extinct="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Sturniiformes"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Coelacanthomorpha" content="coelacanths, etc.">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Actinistia"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rhipidistia" status="informal">
+ <CLADE name="Dipnomorpha">
+ <CLADE name="Dipnoi" content="lungfish"/>
+ <CLADE name="Porolepiformes" extinct="1"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Tetrapodomorpha">
+ <CGENUS name="Kenichthys" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Rhizodontida" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Osteolepimorpha" status="informal">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Choanata" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE name="Osteolepididae" q="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Megalichthyidae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Medoevia" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Canowindridae" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CGENUS name="Gryptoptychius" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Thristicopteridae" extinct="1">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Eusthenopteridae"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ <CLADE name="Elpistostegalia">
+ <CSYNONYM name="Panderichthyida"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Elpistostega" extinct="1"/>
+ <CGENUS name="Panderichthys" extinct="1"/>
+ <CLINK name="Tetrapoda"/>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADE>
+ </CLADOGRAM>
+ <ESSAY>
+ <P>
+ Within the group of animals that have backbones,
+ <LINK content="dinosaurs"/> belong to the tetrapods, or terrestrial
+ vertebrates.
+ </P>
+ </ESSAY>
+</TAXON>
projects / idzebra-moved-to-github.git / blobdiff